--- Page 1 --- A Concise History of the Haitian Revolution --- Page 2 --- Viewpoints/Puntos de Vista: Themes and Interpretations in Latin American History Series editor: Jurgen Buchenau The books in this series will introduce students to the most significant themes and topics in Latin American history. They represent a novel approach to designing supplementary texts for this growing market. Intended as supplementary textbooks, the books will also discuss the ways in which historians have interpreted these themes and topics, thus demonstrating to students that our understanding of our past is constantly changing, through the emergence of new sources, methodologies, and historical theories. Unlike monographs, the books in this series will be broad in scope and written in a style accessible to undergraduates. Published A History of the Cuban Revolution Aviva Chomsky Bartolomé de las Casas and the Conquest of the Americas Lawrence A. Clayton Beyond Borders: A History of Mexican Migration to the United States Timothy J. Henderson The Last Caudillo: Alvaro Obregôn and the Mexican Revolution Jurgen Buchenau A Concise History of the Haitian Revolution Jeremy D. Popkin In preparation Creoles VS. Peninsulars in Colonial Spanish America Mark Burkholder Dictatorship in South America Jerry Davila Mexico Since 1940: The Unscripted Revolution Stephen E. Lewis Bartolomé de las Casas and the Conquest of the Americas Lawrence A. Clayton Beyond Borders: A History of Mexican Migration to the United States Timothy J. Henderson The Last Caudillo: Alvaro Obregôn and the Mexican Revolution Jurgen Buchenau A Concise History of the Haitian Revolution Jeremy D. Popkin In preparation Creoles VS. Peninsulars in Colonial Spanish America Mark Burkholder Dictatorship in South America Jerry Davila Mexico Since 1940: The Unscripted Revolution Stephen E. Lewis --- Page 3 --- A Concise History of the Haitian Revolution Jeremy D. Popkin * WILEY-BLACKWELL A) John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., Publication --- Page 4 --- This edition first published 2012 @ 2012 Jeremy D. Popkin Blackwell Publishing was acquired by John Wiley, & Sons in February 2007. Blackwell's publishing program has been merged with Wiley's global Scientific, Technical, and Medical business to form Wiley-Blackwell. John Registered Wiley Office & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK Editorial Offices 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148-5020, USA 9600 Garsington Road, Oxford, OX4 2DQ, UK The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK For details of our global editorial offices, for customer services, and for information about how to apply for permission to reuse the copyright material in this book please see our website at oncbby-onh-lghaliedl The right of Jeremy D. Popkin to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted in accordance with the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, without the prior permission of the publisher. Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic books. Designations used by companies to distinguish their products are often claimed as trademarks. All brand names and product names used in this book are trade names, service marks, trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective owners. The publisher is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book. This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information in regard to the subject matter covered. It is sold on the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. If professional advice or other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent professional should be sought. Library of Congress Casligingei-Pubiaton Data Popkin, Jeremy D., 1948A concise history of the Haitian revolution / Jeremy D. Popkin. P: cm. - (Viewpoints = Puntos de vista) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-4051-9820-2 (hardcover : alk. paper) ISBN 978-1-4051-9821-9 (pbk. : alk. paper) 1. Hait-ifisory-Bovodationt, 1791-1804. I. Title. F1923.P66 2012 972.94'04-dc23 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. This book is published in the following electronic formats: ePDFs [ISBN 9781444347500); Wiley Online Library (ISBN 9781444347531); ePub (ISBN 9781444347517); Mobi [ISBN 9781444347524) Set in 10 on 12.5 pt Minion by Toppan Best set Premedia Limited I 2012 odationt, 1791-1804. I. Title. F1923.P66 2012 972.94'04-dc23 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. This book is published in the following electronic formats: ePDFs [ISBN 9781444347500); Wiley Online Library (ISBN 9781444347531); ePub (ISBN 9781444347517); Mobi [ISBN 9781444347524) Set in 10 on 12.5 pt Minion by Toppan Best set Premedia Limited I 2012 --- Page 5 --- Contents List of Illustrations vi Series Editor's Preface vii Introduction 1 A Colonial Society in a Revolutionary Era 2 The Uprisings, 1791-1793 3 Republican Emancipation in Saint-Domingue, 1793-1798 4 Toussaint Louverture in Power, 1798-1801 5 The Struggle for Independence, 1802-1806 6 Consolidating Independence in a Hostile World Afterword: The Earthquake Crisis of 2010 and the Haitian Revolution Recent Scholarship on the Haitian Revolution Notes Index --- Page 6 --- Illustrations Maps Saint-Domingue/Haiti and the Caribbean X 2 The French Colony of Saint-Domingue in 1789 3 Saint-Domingue, May 1794 Figures 1.1 Plantations and slave labor 1.2 Vincent Ogé calls on the free men of color to demand their rights 2.1 Ulrick Jean-Pierre, The Ceremony of Bois Caiman 2.2 Esclavage: La Révolte des esclaves Noirs à Saint-Dominique 3.1 Anne-Louis Girodet-Trioson, Portrait de Jean-Baptiste Belley 68 4.1 Toussaint Louverture: Chef des Noirs insurgés de Saint-Domingue 4.2 Toussaint Louverture proclaiming the Saint-Domingue Constitution of 1801 5.1 The Mode of Exterminating the Black Army as Practised by the French 5.2 Dessalines, the First Emperor of Haiti, in His Dress Uniform 5.3 The Haitian Declaration of Independence, 1804 6.1 Guillaume Guillon Lethière, Le Serment des Ancêtres --- Page 7 --- Series Editor's Preface book in the "Viewpoints/Puntos de Vista" series introduces stuEstk, to a significant theme or topic in Latin American history. In an age in which student and faculty interest in the global South increasingly challenges the old focus on the history of Europe and North America, Latin American history has assumed an increasingly prominent position in undergraduate curricula. Some of these books discuss the ways in which historians have interpreted these themes and topics, thus demonstrating that our understanding of our past is constantly changing, through the emergence of new sources, methodologies, and historical theories. Others offer an introduction to a particular theme by means of a case study or biography in a manner easily understood by the contemporary, non-specialist reader. Yet others give an overview of a major theme that might serve as the foundation of an upper-level course. What is common to all of these books is their goal of historical synthesis. They draw on the insights of generations of scholarship on the most enduring and fascinating issues in Latin American history, and through the use of primary sources as appropriate. Each book is written by a specialist in Latin American history who is concerned with undergraduate teaching, yet has also made his or her mark as a first-rate scholar. The books in this series can be used in a variety of ways, recognizing the differences in teaching conditions at small liberal arts colleges, large public universities, and research-oriented institutions with doctoral programs. Faculty have particular needs depending on whether they teach large lectures with discussion sections, small lecture or discussionoriented classes, or large lectures with no discussion sections, and whether they teach on a semester or trimester system. The format adopted for this series fits all of these different parameters. by a specialist in Latin American history who is concerned with undergraduate teaching, yet has also made his or her mark as a first-rate scholar. The books in this series can be used in a variety of ways, recognizing the differences in teaching conditions at small liberal arts colleges, large public universities, and research-oriented institutions with doctoral programs. Faculty have particular needs depending on whether they teach large lectures with discussion sections, small lecture or discussionoriented classes, or large lectures with no discussion sections, and whether they teach on a semester or trimester system. The format adopted for this series fits all of these different parameters. --- Page 8 --- viii Series Editor's Preface In this fifth volume in the series, Professor Jeremy Popkin provides an interpretation of the Haitian Revolution of 1791, at once a massive slave revolt and the second successful independence movement in the New World. The volume provides a clear and concise introduction to a historical process that, by raising the twin specters of freedom and violence, reverberated through the Atlantic world. Popkin discusses the legacy of the Haitian Revolution in global terms: the movement profoundly shaped other independence movements in Latin America and the Caribbean, and affected the political discourse in early nineteenthcentury Europe. A singular strength of this book is its chronological scope, encompassing the nineteenth century and beyond. The author makes the case that the Haitian Revolution was a process of global historical significance, and that it deserves equal billing with the much more widely studied revolutions in France and British North America. Jurgen Buchenau University of North Carolina, Charlotte --- Page 9 --- H D - E : ) a J 7o 0 / --- Page 10 --- Introduction n 16A August 1791, a building was set on fire on one of the hundreds of sugar plantations in France's wealthy Caribbean colony of SaintDomingue, today's independent Republic of Haiti. The local white colonists immediately suspected one of the plantation's black slaves. Under interrogation, he made a startling confession. "The most trusted slaves on the neighboring plantations and those in the adjacent districts had formed a plot to set fire to the plantations and to murder all the whites, >1 he claimed. The authorities in the nearby city ofCap Français, the largest city in the colony, dismissed the idea that uneducated black slaves could have conceived such a scheme. For years, a small minority of whites had successfully exploited the labor of a far larger population of slaves; the whites could not imagine that the blacks they had treated with such contempt for SO long were capable of organizing themselves to overthrow their oppressors. Less than a week later, on the night of 22-23 August 1791, the whites learned how wrong they were. Just as the slave arrested for arson had said, bands of blacks attacked plantations in SaintDomingue's richest sugar-growing area, setting fire to the crops and killing or driving out the white owners and overseers. It was the start of a movement that would culminate almost thirteen years later, on 1 January 1804, when a general who had once been a slave, Jean-Jacques Dessalines, proclaimed the independence of the Republic of Haiti. The Haitian Struggle for Freedom The success of the thirteen-year-long insurrection in the French half of the Caribbean island of Hispaniola, where Christopher Columbus had A Concise History of the Haitian Revolution, First Edition. Jeremy D. Popkin. @ 2012 Jeremy D. Popkin. Published 2012 by Blackwell Publishing Ltd. was the start of a movement that would culminate almost thirteen years later, on 1 January 1804, when a general who had once been a slave, Jean-Jacques Dessalines, proclaimed the independence of the Republic of Haiti. The Haitian Struggle for Freedom The success of the thirteen-year-long insurrection in the French half of the Caribbean island of Hispaniola, where Christopher Columbus had A Concise History of the Haitian Revolution, First Edition. Jeremy D. Popkin. @ 2012 Jeremy D. Popkin. Published 2012 by Blackwell Publishing Ltd. --- Page 11 --- 2 Introduction landed in 1492 and begun the era of the movement for self-rulei in the New European colonialism, showed that to the British empire; the World would not remain confined victory of the Haitians would independence movements help inspire Haitians' throughout Central and South America. The triumph also showed that the movement for America, begun by the white freedom in America in 1776, had population of the British colonies in North leaped across the of time, a population of African boundary race. For the first leader of the Haitian origin overthrewits white rulers. The main movement, Toussaint former slave could command armies Louverture, proved that a white man. Most and govern as effectively as any entire importantly for the future of the Atlantic world, the Haitian Americas and the institutions of slavery and racial Revolution struck a blow against the States, drawn in hierarchy. The constitution of the United up 1787, spoke of freedom, but sands of blacks in servitude; left hundreds of thourights of citizens. In even free black people were denied the full contrast, the Haitian claimed that "slavery is abolished constitution of 1805 procolor forever" and that "all among members of the same distinctions of Haitian Revolution's stand family must necessarily stop." The made it the most radical of against slavery and racial discrimination the American against European rule. No study of the revolutionary insurrections basis for the modern world revolutionary era that laid the can afford to ignore this movement. Present-day Haiti is a small spot on the map of the pies less than half of the island of Americas:it occuSpanish-speaking Dominican Hispaniola that it shares with the ing earthquake of 12 Republic. Particularly since the devastatand reduced its January 2010 that killed more than 130,000 capital city of Port-au-Prince to people Haiti emphasize the country's rubble, media images of endemic poverty, environmental political turmoil. Two hundred problems, and that is now Haiti played a central role years ago, however, the territory by Spain in 1697, in world affairs. Ceded to France become the most Saint-Domingue had grown in less than a century to profitable of all New World 1789, when the slave colonial settlements. In population in the thirteen United 700,000, Saint-Domingue had nearly States was only half of the entire world's 500,000slaves: and produced almost crops of cotton and supply of sugar and coffee, as well as valuable began, indigo. At the moment when the Haitian Revolution Saint-Domingue was the biggest market for 30,000 of whom were imported African slaves, some and the wealth of the every year to keep its economy going, colony's plantation-owners eclipsed that of even the slave colonial settlements. In population in the thirteen United 700,000, Saint-Domingue had nearly States was only half of the entire world's 500,000slaves: and produced almost crops of cotton and supply of sugar and coffee, as well as valuable began, indigo. At the moment when the Haitian Revolution Saint-Domingue was the biggest market for 30,000 of whom were imported African slaves, some and the wealth of the every year to keep its economy going, colony's plantation-owners eclipsed that of even --- Page 12 --- Introduction 3 and South Carolina planters. Vital to the prosperity the richest Virginia Saint-Domingue was also a of France, western Europe's largest country, States: Yankee ships brought flour crucial trading partner for the United and took home and salt meat and fish to feed the island's population, The progress of the molasses to supply New England's rum distilleries. the followed with passion and anxiety throughout Haitian uprising was Atlantic world. Revolution began in August 1791, the At the moment when the Haitian upheaval in France itself. world's attention was focused on the revolutionary 1789, of the Bastille in Paris on 14 July Two years earlier, after the storming National Assembly had issued their the legislators of France's revolutionary "men Declaration ofthe Rights ofMan and Citizen, proclaimingthat" famous in rights." The uprising in Saintare born and remain free and equal applied to the forced them to consider whether their principles that Domingue colonies. Torn between their assertion 800,000 slaves in France'soverseas and their equally strong belief that freedom was a universal human right and to maintain its own power prosperFrance needed overseas possessions with the problem of reconity, the French revolutionaries wrestled painfully national interest. In 1799 a ciling their principles with their country's in France. Inhis mind, successful general, Napoleon Bonaparte, seized poweri had proved to be revolutionaries had proclaimed the liberty the French and social order. He had even less symincompatible with political stability societyin) France's Caribbean pathy for the attempt tol build a free multi-racial in 1802-3 His attempt to reimpose white rule in Saint-Domingue colonies. of the entire Haitian Revolution. The defeat provoked the most violent phase foreshadowed the disasters inflicted on his forces by the island's population in 1814. and Russia that would bring about his downfall in Spain other parts of the Atlantic world Like revolutionary France, many Haitian Revolution. In affected by the events of the were powerfully for American commerce, the fate of slavery addition to its importance for slaveowners in the southern in Saint-Domingue was a major concern island the first of white colonists from the produced states. The flight of the United States, and the support given refugee crisis in the history in the late 1790s was the first to the black leader Toussaint Louverture Statesinterventiont beyondi lits owmbonde.Napoleonis example ofUnited offer to sell its territorial claims in North defeat in 1803 led France to This "Louisiana Purchase" America to the young American republic. of the United States and its opened the way for the westward expansion residents of Saint-Domingue growth into a continental power. Former produced states. The flight of the United States, and the support given refugee crisis in the history in the late 1790s was the first to the black leader Toussaint Louverture Statesinterventiont beyondi lits owmbonde.Napoleonis example ofUnited offer to sell its territorial claims in North defeat in 1803 led France to This "Louisiana Purchase" America to the young American republic. of the United States and its opened the way for the westward expansion residents of Saint-Domingue growth into a continental power. Former --- Page 13 --- Introduction of New Orleans and profoundly made up much of the early population culture. Blacks in the United States influenced that region's distinctive that members of their saw in the success of the Haitian movement proof inspired some of the could achieve freedom; the Haitian example race nineteenth century and gave courage to slave conspiracies of the early oftheir people through legal means. those who campaigned for the rights western hemisphere, not just The Haitian Revolution affected the entire that led to United States. Whether it was an inspiration for the uprisings the Latin American countries in the early nineteenth the independence of other the region, ruling century remains a matter of debate, however. Throughout their slaves and elites feared the spread of ideas about freedom among Haitian movement. dreaded the kind of violence that had characterized the in the 1810s and In South and Central America, independence movements of the free men of color that resembled the movement 1820s more closely the Haitian Revolution, rather developed alongside the slave uprising during bring the and independence did not immediately! than the slaves' own uprising, when they first gained their freedom. end of slavery in many of those countries the most resistant to the Haitian The Caribbean islands closest to Haiti proved their colonial rulers, not abolished in them by example; slavery was finally later. Even today, not all of through insurrection, and independence came even Puerto Rico, and the islands of the United States governs them are independent: territories of France. In some Latin Martinique and Guadeloupe are overseas promoted the growth of American countries the Haitian Revolution clearly refugees slavery rather than hastening its disappearance. Saint-Domingue and Brazil, creatmethods to Cuba brought their highly efficient sugar-growing make those two countries the last ing new centers of production that would places in the Americas to abolish the institution. Georg intellectuals such as the German philosopher In Europe, the implications of resistance to Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel pondered of them motivated by religious slavery, and British abolitionists, many of the need to abolish cited the Haitian movement as proof principles, their efforts led the British Parliament to officially proslavery; in 1807 the sudden disappearance of what had hibit the slave trade. In Africa, affected the market for new slaves profoundly been the largest single who would otherwise have destinies of thousands of men and women lesson the success of to the Caribbean. Taught a harsh by been shipped British and French governments and economic the Haitian Revolution, be more profitable to estabinterest groups began to think that it might could be regimented to lish colonies in Africa itself, where black labor movement as proof principles, their efforts led the British Parliament to officially proslavery; in 1807 the sudden disappearance of what had hibit the slave trade. In Africa, affected the market for new slaves profoundly been the largest single who would otherwise have destinies of thousands of men and women lesson the success of to the Caribbean. Taught a harsh by been shipped British and French governments and economic the Haitian Revolution, be more profitable to estabinterest groups began to think that it might could be regimented to lish colonies in Africa itself, where black labor --- Page 14 --- Introduction 5 market without the moral stigma associated produce for the European Haitian Revolution was thus directly with the Atlantic slave trade. The that the of a new age of European imperialism linked to beginnings affect almost the entire would, by the end of the nineteenth century, world. continent of Africa and many other parts of the Defining the Haitian Revolution recent way of labeling the The term "Haitian Revolution*"is: a relatively 1804. Historians who use this dramatic events of the years from 1791 to level as the that these events should be put on the same phrase argue in discussions ofthe origins of modern American and French revolutions "Haitian Revolution" also sugideas of freedom and equality. The phrase from 1791 to 1804 however, that there was a unity to the events gests, reflected the accomplishment of a program and that their final outcome As we will see, these proposiconsciously laid out from the beginning. that began in 1791 accurate. The slave uprising tions are not necessarily for example, and it affected only one of the colony's three provinces, the uprising of alongside another revolutionary movement, developed of color, that had very different goals. Saint-Domingue's free people often in conflict with one movements were These two revolutionary after the declaration of Haitian another, a conflict that continued even against the French in 1804. Initially, both of them fought independence From 1794 to 1801, however, both movements colonial government. until Napoleon's intervention in claimed to be supporting the French, them. Waged by a 1802 drove most of the population to turn against slavery never the Haitian revolt against largely illiterate population, and its history has to be written issued a manifesto defining its goals, by outsiders, most of almost entirely on the basis of evidence provided certainly had revoluhostile to it. Those events whom were thoroughly to force them into a mold derived from tionary consequences, but trying Including the Haitian American and French models is misleading. revolutions requires us Revolution as one of the modern world's major for nature of such phenomena, and to recognize, to rethink the very without the appearance of a revoinstance, that a revolution can develop lutionary party or movement. the Haitian Revolution as a unified Just as it is misleading to describe it is difficult to with clearly defined and consistent goals, movement provided certainly had revoluhostile to it. Those events whom were thoroughly to force them into a mold derived from tionary consequences, but trying Including the Haitian American and French models is misleading. revolutions requires us Revolution as one of the modern world's major for nature of such phenomena, and to recognize, to rethink the very without the appearance of a revoinstance, that a revolution can develop lutionary party or movement. the Haitian Revolution as a unified Just as it is misleading to describe it is difficult to with clearly defined and consistent goals, movement --- Page 15 --- Introduction leader, Toussaint Louverture, as a revolutionary describe its principal Fidel Castro. To this day, it remains leader in the mold of Robespierre or role in starting the slave unclear whether Toussaint actually played any he did not initially insurrection in 1791. When he joined the movement, the first abolition of slavery, and he even rejected call for the complete in 1793. After he switched from fighting French decree of emancipation their side in 1794, Toussaint consistagainst the French to fighting on even when his ently insisted that he was loyal to the French government, he on undermine its authority. The laws imposed actions appeared to during these years, however, were the population of Saint-Domingue revolt him. Toussaint conservative: and drove many blacks to against terriquite demonstration that a black man could govern a key Louverture's but he cannot tory in the Atlantic world had revolutionary implications, in the ideologically driven revolutionary be seen as a self-conscious, Paine, or the leaders of the French mold of Thomas Jefferson, Thomas Jacobins. Haitian declaration of independence It has been customary to see the of 1805 of the first Haitian constitution of 1804 and the promulgation Revolution. Slavery, the fundamental the end of the Haitian as marking had been abolished and, with the defeat institution of colonial society, white colonists, of the French army and the massacre of the remaining replaced by a new ruling class was completely the pre-revolutionary of the Haitian Revolution did group of rulers. Nevertheless, the outcome the end of 1806, Haiti become clear until many years after 1804. By not that continued to fight each other until had split into two rival states until 1825, and it 1820. France did not recognize Haiti's independence decades before the lasting features of post-revolutionary took several The final chapter of this book outlines Haitian society became evident. until the crisis of 1843, which the major developments of Haitian history between the democratic and may be seen as the last direct confrontation' coming out of the revolutionary period. elitist currents Studying the Haitian Revolution aware of the importance of Although people at the time were intensely outside of Haitii itself that the events we now call the Haitian Revolution, attention as the American movement has never commanded the same not recognize Haiti's independence decades before the lasting features of post-revolutionary took several The final chapter of this book outlines Haitian society became evident. until the crisis of 1843, which the major developments of Haitian history between the democratic and may be seen as the last direct confrontation' coming out of the revolutionary period. elitist currents Studying the Haitian Revolution aware of the importance of Although people at the time were intensely outside of Haitii itself that the events we now call the Haitian Revolution, attention as the American movement has never commanded the same --- Page 16 --- Introduction 7 Whereas the United States and French revolutions of the same period. whereas France remained and rapidly expanded into a continental power; world well affairs and ruled over a empire a major factor in European small nation of Haiti did not have the into the twentieth century, the country in the Americas, the same assets. As the only black-dominated outside world increasingly nation was treated with hostility by an new that have still not entirely disapunder the sway of racial prejudices such as the vast farming peared. Lacking natural and cultural resources States inherited from and the educational institutions the United regions Haiti was unable to follow the same path to prosperity its colonial past, born in the revoThe two American republics as its northern neighbor. civil conflictsin the nineteenth century, lutionary era were both rackedl by Civil War of 1861-5 with its but the United States emerged from its intact, whereas Haiti democratic institutions and its economy largely interventions succession of coups, dictatorships, and foreign suffered a of a strong civil society, stable political that obstructed the development institutions, and a diversified economy. that focused the world's Even before the January 2010 earthquake and its history was on the rise. attention on the country, interest in Haiti have tried to grapple with the As people in the United States and Europe bound with legacies of their own histories, SO strongly up ambiguous and the memory of slavery, and as our civilization imperialism, racism, countries playing an ever has become truly global, with non-western attention paid to the only sucrole in world affairs, the more important slavery in history and the first successful noncessful uprising against has grown rapidly. The white movement for national independence focused the world's attencatastrophe of 12 January 2010 has once again community's questions about the world tion on Haiti, raising painful and about Haiti's own ability to responsibility to help those in need of the revolutionary the promises of freedom and equality implement the of an important era. In the United States and Canada, development attention to the of Haitian immigrants is drawing new community such figures as the novelist Edwidge history of the countrythat has produced Jean. Even for those with no Danticat and the popular musician Wyclef novelist Madison Smartt connection to Haiti, like the American All personal novels about the Haitian Revolution, Bell, whose trilogy of dramatic (2000), and The Stone That the Souls' Rising (1995), Master of the Crossroads introductions to this history, the Builder Refused (2004), was one of my own of the events of 1791 to 1804 is easy to understand. importance the novelist Edwidge history of the countrythat has produced Jean. Even for those with no Danticat and the popular musician Wyclef novelist Madison Smartt connection to Haiti, like the American All personal novels about the Haitian Revolution, Bell, whose trilogy of dramatic (2000), and The Stone That the Souls' Rising (1995), Master of the Crossroads introductions to this history, the Builder Refused (2004), was one of my own of the events of 1791 to 1804 is easy to understand. importance --- Page 17 --- 8 Introduction of the Haitian Revolution is a complicated Reconstructing the history and French revolutions belonged challenge. Participants in the American left behind volumifamiliar with the written word; they to civilizations their ideas and records from which historians can reconstruct nous of the blacks who participated in the Haitian actions. The vast majority from which we have to piece uprising were illiterate; the documents come almost exclusively between 1791 and 1804 together what happened hostile to the movement. The docufrom whites, most of whom were letters from white coloments that we do have - French official records, States, memoirs by articles published in the United nists, newspaper period - tell us much about the events of survivors of the revolutionary about the Haitian Revolution the period, but there are many questions What did the ordinary will never be able to fully answer. that historians think they were fighting for? How did members of the black population the other leaders of the movement, they view Toussaint Louverture and other documents behind? What who did, in some cases, leave letters and in the insurrecrole of the slaves' vodou religious beliefs shaping was the free of color exert over the tion? What influence did the population to these and many other insurgents? Historians disagree on the responses the best questions about the events leading up to Haitian independence; and often onedo is answers based on the fragmentary we can propose that some essential aspects of the sided evidence we do possess, knowing past will always escape us. of their ancestors' struggle for freedom For Haitians themselves, the story remain sources of inspiration importance, and its heroes has great symbolic likei insurmountable challenges. This to a population facing what often seem of modern historical research, may account, constrained by the guidelines colorful scenes of revolutionary strike some readers as less vivid than the artists. Reconciling by many of Haiti's talented contemporary events painted Revolution with the results of the living historical memory of the Haitian Nevertheless, the historian's modern historical research is not a simple task. as the outcome the events of the revolutionary period attempt to understand who in them has its own of the actions of the men and women participated enough to answer all our value, even if the historical record is not complete students and general The aim of this book is, then, to provide facts questions. concise overview of the generally accepted historical readers with a the scholarship of historians from about the Haitian Revolution, drawing on United States and Europe Haiti itself as well as the research of those in the who have contributed to the subject. task. as the outcome the events of the revolutionary period attempt to understand who in them has its own of the actions of the men and women participated enough to answer all our value, even if the historical record is not complete students and general The aim of this book is, then, to provide facts questions. concise overview of the generally accepted historical readers with a the scholarship of historians from about the Haitian Revolution, drawing on United States and Europe Haiti itself as well as the research of those in the who have contributed to the subject. --- Page 18 --- Introduction For much of the period from the declaration of Haitian independence in 1804 until the last decades of the twentieth century, serious historical scholarship on this subject by scholars outside Haiti remained quite limited. Haitian historians have produced many important works on the subject, despite the fact that most of the surviving documents about the revolution are only available in France and not in Haiti itself, but their books, usually published in French, are often hard to find except in major research libraries. Outside of Haiti, few historians were attracted to a subject that inevitably raised troubling questions about the policies of the French Revolution and the national hero Napoleon, and reminded Americans that the United States had refused to recognize Haiti's freedom for six decades. In recent decades, what the Haitian American scholar Michel-Rolph Trouillot eloquently denounced in a famous essay as the "silencing" imposed on the Haitian Revolution for SO long has begun to end.? In writing this short history, I have been able to draw on a rapidly growing body of modern scholarship from both sides of the Atlantic; the recommendations for further reading at the end of this book will point readers to many of the sources I have used. If this book encourages readers to explore the subject further on their own, it will have achieved its purpose. --- Page 19 --- A Colonial Society in a Revolutionary Era beginning of the Haitian Revolution in August 1791 shocked the Atlantic world because it occurred, not Tated in some remote backwater of the Americas, but in the fastest-growing and most prosperous of all the New World colonies. By 1791 Europeans had been staking out territory across in the Atlantic and importing African slaves to work for them for 300 years, but nowhere else had this colonial system been made to function as successfully as in Saint-Domingue. In the twenty-eight years since the end of the eighteenth century's largest conflict, the Seven Years War, in 1763, the population of the French colony had nearly doubled as plantation-owners cashed in on Europe's seemingly unquenchable appetite for sugar and coffee. Imports of slaves to the island averaged over 15,000 a year in the late 1760s; after an interruption caused by the American War of Independence, they soared to nearly 30,000 in the late 1780s. Nowhere else had slaveowners learned to exploit their workforce with such harsh efficiency: by 1789, there were nearly twelve black slaves for every white inhabitant, and the wealthiest SaintDomingue plantation-owners were far richer than Virginians like George Washington and Thomas Jefferson. Cap Français, the colony's largest city, was one of the New World's busiest ports; on an average day, more than a hundred merchant ships lay at anchor in its broad harbor. The city itself, with its geometrically laid-out streets and its modern public buildings, was a symbol of European civilization in the tropics. A Concise History of the Haitian Revolution, First Edition. Jeremy D. Popkin. @ 2012 Jeremy D. Popkin. Published 2012 by Blackwell Publishing Ltd. omingue plantation-owners were far richer than Virginians like George Washington and Thomas Jefferson. Cap Français, the colony's largest city, was one of the New World's busiest ports; on an average day, more than a hundred merchant ships lay at anchor in its broad harbor. The city itself, with its geometrically laid-out streets and its modern public buildings, was a symbol of European civilization in the tropics. A Concise History of the Haitian Revolution, First Edition. Jeremy D. Popkin. @ 2012 Jeremy D. Popkin. Published 2012 by Blackwell Publishing Ltd. --- Page 20 --- A Colonial Society in a Revolutionary Era Môle Saint-Nicolas NORTH Cap Français PROVINCE o5 D Northern e Fort Limbé Plain Dauphin 0 GrandRivière Atlantic Ocean SANTO DOMINGO Crête-àPierrot (SPANISH) e Saint-Marc WEST PROVINCE Mirebalais e Jérémie Ja SOUTH PROVINCE Port-au-Prince Léogane Cayeseep Jacmel Map 2 The French Colony of Saint-Domingue in 1789. Source: Adapted from Jeremy Popkin, Facing Racial Revolution: Eyewitness Accounts of the Haitian Uprising (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007). The Origins of Saint-Domingue The island of Hispaniola, where Saint-Domingue was located, had been the site of one of the first contacts between Europeans and the peoples of the Americas: Columbus landed on its northern coast during his first voyage in 1492. The Spanish made it the first hub of their empire in the New World; the diseases they brought with them and their harsh exploitation of the population soon killed off the native Taino Indians. By the end of the 1500s, however, the Spanish had found richer opportunities for settlement in Mexico, Peru, and other parts of the Americas. Lacking gold and other easily exploitable resources, Hispaniola was virtually abandoned. During the early decades of the 1600s, the English, French, and Dutch, shut out of the scramble for territories in the New World by the first arrivals, the Spanish and the Portuguese, began staking claims to some of the islands in the Caribbean. France established its first harsh exploitation of the population soon killed off the native Taino Indians. By the end of the 1500s, however, the Spanish had found richer opportunities for settlement in Mexico, Peru, and other parts of the Americas. Lacking gold and other easily exploitable resources, Hispaniola was virtually abandoned. During the early decades of the 1600s, the English, French, and Dutch, shut out of the scramble for territories in the New World by the first arrivals, the Spanish and the Portuguese, began staking claims to some of the islands in the Caribbean. France established its first --- Page 21 --- 12 A Colonial Society in a Revolutionary Era settlement on the small island of Saint-Christophe permanent colonial their flag on two larger islands in in 1626; in 1635, the French planted Together with a Caribbean, Martinique and Guadeloupe. the eastern of South America - today's French Guyana small colony on the coast islands became the base of France's in Canada, these - and their outposts small groups of seagoing adventuroverseas empire. In the same period, northern coast of Hispaniola. on their own, landed on the ers, acting all of them French, were known as boucaniers These early settlers, not fires on which they because of the boucans or open or buccaneers wild cattle and hogs they found roaming the smoked meat from the deserted island. colonial domains at the expense of their longEager to expand their French made a move to claim territoryin time enemies, the Spanish, the settlements in a governor for the boucaniers' Hispaniola by appointing conflict known as the War of 1665. In 1697, at the end of the European the western third of the the League of Augsburg, Spain officially ceded island became the Spanish the remainder of the island to Louis XIV; all across the of Santo Domingo. By this time, Europeans colony the enormous profits to be made by establishing Caribbean had realized boom first took hold in some of the plantations to grow sugar. The sugar such as the British colony of smaller islands of the eastern Caribbean, 1700, however, much Barbados and the French island of Martinique. By used Saintthose islands had already been up. of the suitable land on horizons for sugar production, Domingue, a larger colony, offered new dreaming of wealth, stream of immigrants, and an ever-increasing 4,411 whites and 3,358 arrived on its shores. In 1687, there were just 6,668 whites by 1715, the figures were black slaves in Saint-Domingue; had risen to 79,545. and 35,451 slaves, and in 1730 the slave population and 249,098 slaves, a later, in 1779, there were 32,650 whites Forty years double by the end of the 1780s.' figure that would nearly dictated its pattern of settlement. The geography of Saint-Domingue land; colonists rapidly staked Sugar plantations needed flat, well-watered of the island and later in out claims in the plain in the northern part in the west, where the drier valleys between the steep mountain ranges possible. The systems had to be built to make sugar-growing irrigation of the island was the last part of the territory long southern peninsula from France than the other parts of the to be settled; harder to reach trade with the British, Dutch, colony, it was more involved in contraband the French colonies to its south and west. Eventually, and Spanish aked Sugar plantations needed flat, well-watered of the island and later in out claims in the plain in the northern part in the west, where the drier valleys between the steep mountain ranges possible. The systems had to be built to make sugar-growing irrigation of the island was the last part of the territory long southern peninsula from France than the other parts of the to be settled; harder to reach trade with the British, Dutch, colony, it was more involved in contraband the French colonies to its south and west. Eventually, and Spanish --- Page 22 --- A Colonial Society in a Revolutionary Era into separate North, West and administration divided Saint-Domingue and Port-au-Prince in the Cap Français in the north South provinces. centers; smaller cities such as Cayes, west were the main administrative scattered along the coast, at the capital of the South Province, were the oft the plantawhere ships could anchor and collect products points By the mid-1700s, Saint-Domingue tions for transport to Europe. cash almost as lucrative had discovered a new crop, island's plantation-owners Coffee trees could be grown on the slopes of the as sugar: coffee. land that was unsuitable for sugar cane. Whereas steep mountains, on investments of money to pay for the sugar plantations required large boil their juice, and machinery needed to crush the canes, and expensive were cheaper to set up refine the raw sugar, coffee plantations who arrived after 1763. Indigo, attracted many of the new colonists textile manufacturgrown to make a blue dye widely used in European and, by the end of another resource for small-scale plantations, ing, was also an important part of the the century, cotton-growing was becoming in the In 1789 there were some 730 sugar plantations colony's economy. growing coffee and an equal colony, along with over 3,000 plantations number devoted to indigo. the labor force in the French islands In the early days of colonization, and black slaves. As the sugar included both white indentured servants however, plantationdemand for workers, boom created a growing became more and more dependent the Caribbean owners throughout fields. After the end of Louis XIV's long series on Africans to work their rapidly. Throughout of wars in 1713, the French slave trade expanded Atlantic slave ships left the ports on France's the eighteenth century, coast of Africa. There, they exchanged coast, carrying trade goods to the and women, often captives textiles, muskets, and jewelry for black men into the holds of overtaken in wars between rival African states. Packed would never see vessels, the terrified blacks knew only that they crowded Close to a sixth of the slaves on a their families and homelands again. before reaching the died from disease or mistreatment typical voyage in Saint-Domingue were promptly put up Americas. Those who arrived where, ifthey were for sale and found themselves taken off to plantations their native encounter a few fellow captives who spoke lucky, they might world, had to struggle to make some language. In this strange new they of masters whose only kind of life for themselves, under the control of useful labor from the maximum amount interest was in extracting them. on a their families and homelands again. before reaching the died from disease or mistreatment typical voyage in Saint-Domingue were promptly put up Americas. Those who arrived where, ifthey were for sale and found themselves taken off to plantations their native encounter a few fellow captives who spoke lucky, they might world, had to struggle to make some language. In this strange new they of masters whose only kind of life for themselves, under the control of useful labor from the maximum amount interest was in extracting them. --- Page 23 --- 14 A Colonial Society in a Revolutionary Era A Slave Society was a classic example of what hisEighteenth-century Saint-Domingue in which the institution of slavery was torians call a "slave society," one "societies with slaves," in central to every aspect of life, in contrast to and most small part of the population which slaves were a relatively in work activity was carried on by free people. Organized economic performed almost all of the gangs or atteliers, slaves in Saint-Domingue and processing of sugar exhausting physical labor on which the growing Much ofthe field work - hoeing fields to clear away and coffee depended. done women; slave men were weeds, planting, and harvesting - was by carpentry, often trained to do more skilled jobs, such as sugar-processing, coachmen. Children like the future Toussaint Louverture, serving as or, attelier as early as possible, to accustom were assigned to a special petit sick to toil in the fields were used to them to work, and slaves too old or At the top of the hierarthe plantation's animals or its storeroom. guard commandeurs or slave drivers, who directed chy among the slaves werethe of a plantation depended the other slaves'work. The smooth functioning themthe commandeurs were slaves on the commandeurs: even though treated them with respect to and managers selves, plantation-owners the rest of the workforce. While most maintain their authority over and coffee, some slaves worked in the fields or processed sugar The plantation servants for the masters and their families. were used as domestic for women was the direction of the one skilled job usually reserved of the sick and ferreting out malingerers infirmary; supervising the care task in the overall who were trying to escape work was an important management of a plantation. notorious for the demands they Caribbean sugar plantations were A French observer in the 1780s placed on their slaves (see Figure 1.1). sugar fields: "The described the scene he witnessed in Saint-Domingue's from all parts of blazed down on (the slaves'] heads; sweat poured sun from the heat, tired by the weight oftheir their bodies. Their limbs, heavy hardened to the point hoes and the resistance of heavy soil, which was all obstacles. where it broke the tools, nonetheless struggled to overcome Sugar silence; all their faces showed their misery" They worked in glum before the precious juice cane had to be processed as soon as it was cut, the long harvesting began to turn to starch and lose its sweetness. During in the fields and from January to July every year, cane was cut season, --- Page 24 --- A atan aass pAN Illustrations to the French Encyclopédie Plantations and slave labor. black slavery as a normal Figure 1.1 century treated of (Encyclopedia) of the mid-cightenth other articles in this compendium life, although the institution. The upper aspect of economic raised some questions about it for shipment Enlightenment thought blacks harvesting cotton and preparing of a sugar illustration here shows visible on the right in the depiction the Slave huts are clearly are not shown in picture. to Europe. slaves themselves des sci- (below), even though Encyclopédie ou dictionnaire plantation engraving from D. Diderot, Source: Copper Nationale 1 AKG-images. ences. Photo: Paris, Bibliothèque this compendium life, although the institution. The upper aspect of economic raised some questions about it for shipment Enlightenment thought blacks harvesting cotton and preparing of a sugar illustration here shows visible on the right in the depiction the Slave huts are clearly are not shown in picture. to Europe. slaves themselves des sci- (below), even though Encyclopédie ou dictionnaire plantation engraving from D. Diderot, Source: Copper Nationale 1 AKG-images. ences. Photo: Paris, Bibliothèque --- Page 25 --- 16 A Colonial Society in a Revolutionary Era the heavy rollers of the crushing machine. The immediately fed through be boiled for hours in large cauldrons, while extracted juice then had to heat; it was then poured into slaves stirred the syrup in the sweltering Slaves who had toiled in the molds SO that the sugar could crystallize. into the night, and accifields during the day were forced to work long who had to feed dents caused by exhaustion were frequent; slave women that caught machines often lost arms got the cane stalks into crushing was not driven by the same in the machinery. Work on coffee plantations but the endless need for haste as that involved in sugar production, the beans, spreadroutine of planting and caring for the trees, harvesting slaves equally them out to dry in the sun, and processing them kept ing for their masters, slaves were responsible busy. In addition to working food: masters usually gave them small for producing most of their own for themselves. private plots to raise yams, beans, and other vegetables a week to to be guaranteed one day In theory, slaves were supposed hesitated to commandeer them cultivate these gardens, but masters never with whatever free time they for other tasks; the slaves had to make do could find to tend their crops. slaves were harsh. Although Living conditions for plantation suitedt to worki <int thehot Caribbean Europeansconsiderede blacks uniquely arrived slaves because it resembled the weather in Africa, newly climate diseases in their new environment or succumbed fell victim to unfamiliar traumatic ordeal they! had been through; to depression resulting from the died in their first year in the colonies. as many as a third of the slaves in Saint-Domingue life of a slave after arriving The average expectancy Most slaves suffered from chronic was no more than seven to ten years. rarely sufficed to provide malnutrition: the system of private plots of meat, a basic element enough food, and above all slaves were deprived obliged to supply of their diet in Africa. Slaveowners were theoretically them attention to clothing, but few of paid their slaves with adequate to wear or were forced to go this rule, and slaves often had only rags huts similar slaves tried to build around half-naked. Left to themselves, often to force familiar to them from Africa, but masters preferred to those where they had less privacy and could be them to live in larger buildings marriages among their supervised more easily. Masters discouraged families would give them a sense of slaves, for fear that having their own bossales, were sometimes put independence. Newly arrived slaves, called native but of blacks who spoke their language, under the supervision of elements of French and they still had to learn Creole, a combination aves tried to build around half-naked. Left to themselves, often to force familiar to them from Africa, but masters preferred to those where they had less privacy and could be them to live in larger buildings marriages among their supervised more easily. Masters discouraged families would give them a sense of slaves, for fear that having their own bossales, were sometimes put independence. Newly arrived slaves, called native but of blacks who spoke their language, under the supervision of elements of French and they still had to learn Creole, a combination --- Page 26 --- A Colonial Society in a Revolutionary Era medium of comthat served as the general various African languages At the time of the revolution, African-born munication in the colony. population. Many bossales made up at least half of the Saint-Domingue revolution had military arrived slaves at the time of the of the newly in wars in the Congo region of experience, having been taken captive contribution to the uprising that Africa; they would make an important slaves born in the colony, known as began in 1791.' Masters considered bossales; the creole slaves grew up speakcreoles, easier to manage than the life outside of the slave the local language and had never known any ing system. the slaves at all times was the threat of brutal physical Hanging over masters. Slaveowners and their hired punishment if they angered their force them to work and to punish routinely whipped slaves to managers To make it easier to identify them them for any sign of insubordination. branded with their owners' initials if they tried to run away, slaves were were often forced other marks. Those who were caught after escaping or and be shackled to a post at night. to wear chains or iron collars, might disobedient slaves' ears or also to cut off Masters were legally permitted Slaveowners often built private to cut their hamstrings as punishment. locked up in the dark for various prisons or cachots, where slaves were their slaves, but offenses. In theory, masters were not supposed to execute them. In 1788, the authorities rarely intervened to protect in practice master named Lejeune, charges were brought against a Saint-Domingue because he suspected them who had tortured two slave women to death Lejeune was iniother slaves on his plantation. Although of poisoning SO vocally against the verdict tially convicted, other slaveowners protested that it was overturned. the Code noir or the treatment of slaves was regulated by In theory, the French king Louis XIV. The Code "Black Code" issued in 1685 by colonies, even though noir provided a legal basis for slaveryin the French where French barred from the metropole the institution was officially that "there are no slaves in France" judges had laid down the principle the authority of the Code noir was meant to uphold in 1571. Although it did include some provisions slaveowners over their human property, Masters were made responmeant to prevent the worst abuses of slavery.1 they were supposed sible for providing their slaves with adequate rations, and they were furnish them with two new sets of clothing every year, to education in the Christian religion. In encouraged to provide for their slaves to appeal to the royal the code permitted extreme circumstances, no slaves in France" judges had laid down the principle the authority of the Code noir was meant to uphold in 1571. Although it did include some provisions slaveowners over their human property, Masters were made responmeant to prevent the worst abuses of slavery.1 they were supposed sible for providing their slaves with adequate rations, and they were furnish them with two new sets of clothing every year, to education in the Christian religion. In encouraged to provide for their slaves to appeal to the royal the code permitted extreme circumstances, --- Page 27 --- 18 A Colonial Society in a Revolutionary Era from their masters. In practice, however, both authorities for protection administrators ignored these and French colonial plantation-owners left to furnish most of their own food, clauses of the code: slaves were and little effort was made to clothing was distributed erratically, that the slaves, for fear that this would require recognizing Christianize Few slaves even knew that they they had at least some minimal rights. extreme mistreatment, and to be able to protest about were supposed attention to their complaints. colonial officials rarely paid any The Culture of the Slaves of their masters, the slaves in Forced to live under the harsh discipline some communal life nevertheless managed to develop Saint-Domingue the worst forms of oppression. Although and to find ways to oppose not to mix, in fact slaves from different plantations were made supposed the slaves less likely to masters, knowing that a few concessions when they gathered their situation, looked the other way revolt against their weekly days off. When slaves came for meetings and dances on ceremonies that combined together they would often hold religious with which some African rituals and elements of the Christian practices there into contact. Out of this fusion of elements of them had come century a distinctive religion, emerged in the course of the eighteenth and were seized by the vodou, in which worshipers went into ecstasy blacks often identified spirits of various African spirits or Iwa, whom the unify a slave Catholic saints. Vodou ceremonies helped with particular different African ethnic groups. Individual population drawn from many small of savings sometimes able to build up a pécule personal slaves were raised in their private food plots or by by selling part of the crops they out; in certain cases, their masters to let them hire themselves persuading their own freedom with these earnings. slaves were able to purchase their opposition to their treatment When they could, slaves expressed resistance. What various forms of individual and collective through inherent laziness was undoubtedly: a deliberate masters saw as the blacks' any benefits from their to a system in which slaves were denied response who would grow up under slavery, labor. Rather than bear children abortions; like most slave popuwomen used plants and herbs to induce required lations in the Americas, the slave workforce in Saint-Domingue Marronnage from Africa to maintain its numbers.. constant importations . slaves were able to purchase their opposition to their treatment When they could, slaves expressed resistance. What various forms of individual and collective through inherent laziness was undoubtedly: a deliberate masters saw as the blacks' any benefits from their to a system in which slaves were denied response who would grow up under slavery, labor. Rather than bear children abortions; like most slave popuwomen used plants and herbs to induce required lations in the Americas, the slave workforce in Saint-Domingue Marronnage from Africa to maintain its numbers.. constant importations --- Page 28 --- A Colonial Society in a Revolutionary Era 19 was another common form of resistance. or escape from the plantations a particularly it was a way for slaves to protest against In some cases, and runaway slaves might negotiate their cruel overseer or commandeur, for a promise of better treatment. return to the plantation in exchange in fleeing into the mountains Some groups of marron slaves succeeded in a remote area along bands; one group and established independent maintained itself for nearly a the border with Spanish Santo Domingo small. Runaway slaves century, although its numbers were relatively be able to take in the colony's cities, where they might could also refuge freedmen and make a living as day laborers. pass themselves off as claimed that they could easily manage their Although they normally the blacks might turn against them. slaves, masters lived in fear that illnesses or deaths among Plantation-owners blamed any unexplained which the colony's whites their slaves or their livestock on poisoning, the entire colony was claimed was the blacks' main weapon. In 1757-8, organized by a slave supposedly swept by fear of an organized conspiracy, whites and take over the island. The named Makandal, to poison all the slaves, and it is not clear deaths attributed to Makandal were all among rather than to disease, but he was tortured that they were due to poison to legend, he turned and burned alive in Cap Français in 1758. According ErentodayMakandals of resistance to oppression. Coacrar name is remembered in Haiti as a symbol to the slave system was Despitethe whites' fears, overt collective resistance Dutch mainBritish island of Jamaica or the rare: unlike the neighboring Saint-Domingue experienced no land colony of Surinam, for example, This was certainly not major slave revolts in the decades prior to 1791. but until 1791 they did because slaves found their situation acceptable, collective violence. realistic prospect of changing it through not see any The White Colonial Order outnumbered by the slave population, until Although they were heavily of white colonists seemed solidly in minority 1791, Saint-Domingue's French kept only a small control of the island.. Although the inhabitants government in 1789 used the garrison in the island, the 30,000 white technology to threat of force and the resources of European with constant blacks. Trained troops armed dominate the far more numerous forces, helped them supplemented by local police European weapons, see any The White Colonial Order outnumbered by the slave population, until Although they were heavily of white colonists seemed solidly in minority 1791, Saint-Domingue's French kept only a small control of the island.. Although the inhabitants government in 1789 used the garrison in the island, the 30,000 white technology to threat of force and the resources of European with constant blacks. Trained troops armed dominate the far more numerous forces, helped them supplemented by local police European weapons, --- Page 29 --- 20 A Colonial Society in a Revolutionary Era ships capable of crossing the oceans deter slave resistance. European and the export of plantation made the import of slaves and supplies financed the slave trade and the products possible. Loans from France most slaves were illiterate, expansion of colonial plantations. Whereas documents to maintain comwhites used written letters and printed After 1764, the Saintmunication between the colony and the metropole.. notices describing Domingue newspaper, the. Afichesaméricnines printed down. Few of the escaped slaves, helping their masters to track them but all of them in 1791 had ever seen Europe, slaves in Saint-Domingue connection with France made them understood that the white colonists' formidable adversaries. could claim several By 1791 a few of the whites in Saint-Domingue of them, like the bossale of ancestry in the island, but most generations other side oft the Atlantic. Throughout slaves, had in fact been born on the France's land of opportuthe eighteenth century, Saint-Domingue individuals was could hope to escape nity, a new frontier where enterprising and make their fortunes. Even the the restrictions of aristocratic society whites were as vulnerablet to tropihighrated ofmortalityf for new arrivals immigrants. The cal diseasesas their slaves - did not discourageambitiousi in 1785 are typical of memoirs of one settler who arrived in the colony could not who crossed the ocean, looking for opportunities they those from his domineering parents, this anonyfind in Europe. Eager to escape French army's colonial regiments. mous author enlisted in one of the and he was able to spend Army discipline in Saint-Domingue was lax, After a few years, much of his time doing odd jobs to earn extra money. and went to work as an économe or assistant he deserted his regiment a salary of 3,000 livres overseer on a coffee plantation.Hev was soon making worker's with room and board, at a time when an ordinary a year, along as much. He succeeded in winning the wages in France were about a tenth for; when that man died, he worked trust of the elderly plantation-owner) livres and "a young American-born he left his former employee 6,000 whom he knew I had affection." black woman, eighteen years old, for slaves of his own and Using this money, the young man acquired more of the colony." established a coffee plantation in the southern part themfrom France had to struggle to establish Whereas newcomers even by the slaves, as petits blancs, "little selves and were often referred to, their skin color, the most successful whites" whose only distinction was Frenchmen at home could dream grands blancs achieved fortunes that few man listed a sugar his losses in the Haitian Revolution, one of. Itemizing knew I had affection." black woman, eighteen years old, for slaves of his own and Using this money, the young man acquired more of the colony." established a coffee plantation in the southern part themfrom France had to struggle to establish Whereas newcomers even by the slaves, as petits blancs, "little selves and were often referred to, their skin color, the most successful whites" whose only distinction was Frenchmen at home could dream grands blancs achieved fortunes that few man listed a sugar his losses in the Haitian Revolution, one of. Itemizing --- Page 30 --- A Colonial Society in a Revolutionary Era 21 coffee with 46 slaves, a stud farm plantation with 342 slaves, a plantation establishment employwith 48 mares and 148 mules, and a lime-making of Saint-Domingue ing 25 slaves; he was by no means the wealthiest their and built houses on plantations planters." 5 Prosperous planters large from Europe. Freed from filled them with expensive furnishingsi imported the colonists were known for having to do any physical labor themselves, Merchantsi in the colony'scities theirh hospitalityandt their lavish spending. customers, many of enriched themselves through supplying these wealthy in France, leaving most of their time in town or left to live whom spent their Critics of the slavery hired managers or gérants to run properties. interest was to accumulate as blamed these managers, whose main system forthemselves,i in thehopes of eitherl buying their much money as possible France with their profits, for treating own plantations or of returning to that should have been spent the slaves harshly and skimming off money on their care. Atlantic Ocean, the white colonists in Separated from France by the attempt to Saint-Domingue resented the metropolitan government's distant authorities in their lives. From the point of view of the regulate existed in order to enrich the mother country Versailles, Saint-Dominguer powers. with the other European imperial and help France compete the colonists to buy their France's navigation act, the exclusif, required their products only in supplies only from French merchants and to sell merchant houses of Colonists complained that the the mother country. them for products shipped Bordeaux, Nantes, and Le Havre overcharged and coffee; especially and underpaid them for their sugar from Europe colonists reacted by carrying on a lively smuggling in the South Province, and Britain's North trade with other Caribbean islands prosperous ofthe colonies. The white colonists also resented the authority American civil intendants sent from France to govern them. military governors and wanted to run the island's plantation-owners Wealthy and self-confident, British colonies usually did. their own affairs, as colonists in the nearby French administration After the end of the Seven Years War in 1763, the the British its control overi its most valuable colony,j just as tried to tighten While Britain's colonists demonstrated were doing in North America. colonists measures like a new stamp tax, the Saint-Domingue which against 1768 they staged an outright rebellion went further: in December until the following summer. It was a under control was not brought that the colonists would show when warning of the independent spirit revolution broke out in France in 1789. the nearby French administration After the end of the Seven Years War in 1763, the the British its control overi its most valuable colony,j just as tried to tighten While Britain's colonists demonstrated were doing in North America. colonists measures like a new stamp tax, the Saint-Domingue which against 1768 they staged an outright rebellion went further: in December until the following summer. It was a under control was not brought that the colonists would show when warning of the independent spirit revolution broke out in France in 1789. --- Page 31 --- 22 A Colonial Society in a Revolutionary Era main city, Cap Français, the white population recreated In the colony's life. Le Cap, as it was commonly called, the features of modern European easier to navigate than the crooked had a rectangular grid of streets, much House, originally built alleyways of Paris.. A large and imposing Government administration. The city, by the Jesuit religious order, housed the colonial built of stone. In of around 18,000 in 1789, was largely with a population it boasted separate hospitals for men and addition to its 1,500-seat theater, barracks complex for the military women, elegant public squares, and al large invasion and the threat of garrison that protected the colonists from foreign themselves full participants in slave Le Cap's whites considered a uprising. culture of France. The city had bookstores, Masonic the Enlightenment the third community in the western hemislodges, and in 1784 it became learned society, the Cercle phere, after Philadelphia and Boston, to have a in 1789. Saintwhich was recognized as a royal academy des Philadelphes, Port-au-Prince,i in the west, was Dominguesothero cities werel less impressive. smaller than Le Cap's. the official capital, even though its population was were still were made out tofwooda andi its streets unpaved Most ofitsl buildings The smaller ports scattered along the colony's at the time of the revolution. could anchor to take on the coastline served primarily as places where ships produce from local plantations. The Free People of Color with black slaves and with members of the Whites shared the cities of color. Asi in the countryside, colony's third racial group, the free people loading and unloading slaves did most of the physical labor in the cities, trades, and caring for their masters'houseships, working in the building freedom than the more numerous holds. Urban slaves enjoyed greater them artisanal skills the Masters often taught workers on plantations. in exchange for a share of their and then let them hire themselves out, work they could often Rather than being organized into gangs, earnings. and the fact that it was difficult to distinguish circulate on their own, marrons to blend into the city slaves from free blacks allowed runaway would show itselfless eager to population. The urban black population in 1791 than the slaves in the slave insurrection that began participate on the plantations. situation because they hoped to join the Urban slaves tolerated their This third racial category among the population of free people of color. share of their and then let them hire themselves out, work they could often Rather than being organized into gangs, earnings. and the fact that it was difficult to distinguish circulate on their own, marrons to blend into the city slaves from free blacks allowed runaway would show itselfless eager to population. The urban black population in 1791 than the slaves in the slave insurrection that began participate on the plantations. situation because they hoped to join the Urban slaves tolerated their This third racial category among the population of free people of color. --- Page 32 --- A Colonial Society in a Revolutionary Era 23 soon after slaves arrived in the colony's population had begun to develop of color were the offspring island. Many, but not all, of the free people between white masters and slave women:throughofsexual relationships there had always been many more white men out the colony's history, for the rigors of colonial life. than white women willing to leave Europe and women of African Although the relationships between white men freedom to unequal, white men often granted descent were profoundly children; the Code noir explicitly authortheir concubines and to their also for some this As in all slave societies, it was possible ized practice. individual slaves to hope slaves to earn their freedom; by encouraging them this reward, the possibilthat hard work and devotion would bring to their masters' manumission encouraged slaves to conform ity of slaves who benefited from this system was the wishes. One of the black freed his master when he was future Toussaint Louverture, who was by attempt to mid-thirties. After a brief and apparently unsuccessful in his of his own with a few slaves, he returned to establish a small plantation because he wanted to be close to his work for his former owner, possibly wife and children, who were still enslaved. in all the American Populations of free people of color developed the in Saintcolonies, but in the course of the eighteenth century than group in any of the Domingue came to be larger and more influential who were descended other Caribbean colonies. Those free people ofcolor slaves. Less averse from white fathers often inherited property, including of leaving hard work than the whites, and less tempted by the prospect to successful than the colony for France, they were often more economically: running of the Free people of color were essential to the the Europeans. of color were recruited to form the colony. Companies of free men slaves, and free maréchaussée or rural police, used to hunt down runaway businesses. White ran many of the colony's small colored entrepreneurs of mixed race, who legend claimed were men sought out free women whites; white women often commore skilled at the arts of sex than mixed-race rivals. Sex was not plained that European men preferred their themselves to these women, the only reason why white males linked to leave the management however. It was not uncommon for white men free women of color, known as menagères, of their property to energetic many of these women who might or might not also be their mistresses; to guide their the founders of prosperous families and sought became with other members of the free children into advantageous marriages to cross the color line in colored group or even with white men willing skilled at the arts of sex than mixed-race rivals. Sex was not plained that European men preferred their themselves to these women, the only reason why white males linked to leave the management however. It was not uncommon for white men free women of color, known as menagères, of their property to energetic many of these women who might or might not also be their mistresses; to guide their the founders of prosperous families and sought became with other members of the free children into advantageous marriages to cross the color line in colored group or even with white men willing --- Page 33 --- 24 A Colonial Society in a Revolutionary Era situation. Like the children of white order to improve their economic families were sent to France for couples, some children from mixed-race their education. wealth increased - by 1789 official statistics As their numbers and almost as many showed 28,000 free people of color in Saint-Domingue, resented laws whites members of this group increasingly as the 30,000 status. In 1685, the Code noir had that condemned them to second-class and liberties specified that freed blacks had "the same rights, privileges, of the born free," and throughout the early part enjoyed by persons discrimination against them and their eighteenth century, there was little onward, however, official descendants in the colonies. From the 1760s prejudicial and white colonists' attitudes became increasingly that policy of color. The French government calculated toward the free people between whites and non-whites would maintaining a clear separation from uniting to resist metropolitan prevent the colony's free population and A series of laws attempted to limit new manumissions authority. of color from entering a long list of professions, banned free people from fancy clothing and jewelry. including medicine and law, or wearing terms to identify Notaries drawing up legal documents had to use specific of their white and they were forbidden to use the family names them, of these laws were widely ignored, but free ancestors. In practice, many and from comof color were excluded from all government posts men When the French Revolution broke out, they manding military units. of liberty and equality to demand would be quick to seize onits promises the abolition of these restrictions. Critics and Defenders of Slavery by the slavery system and the conIn addition to the tensions generated in the between whites and the free people of color, Saint-Domingue flicts affected by new ideas coming from years before 1789 was increasingly United States. By the middle of the Europe and the newly independent to criticize slavery as an thinkers were beginning 1700s, some European The idea of colonialism also inherent violation of natural human rights. History of the under fire. In 1770 the abbé Raynal's Philosophical came denunciation of the effects of European setTwo Indies made a scathing editions of this best-selling work tlement in the Americas. Subsequent One written by the vehement denunciations of slavery. passage, added from years before 1789 was increasingly United States. By the middle of the Europe and the newly independent to criticize slavery as an thinkers were beginning 1700s, some European The idea of colonialism also inherent violation of natural human rights. History of the under fire. In 1770 the abbé Raynal's Philosophical came denunciation of the effects of European setTwo Indies made a scathing editions of this best-selling work tlement in the Americas. Subsequent One written by the vehement denunciations of slavery. passage, added --- Page 34 --- A Colonial Society in a Revolutionary Era 25 mentioned slave revolts in several colonies, French philosophe Diderot, announce the thunder" and prewarning that "these bolts of lightning black leader would soon "raise dicted that if slavery was not abolished, a the institubanner of liberty" and lead a movement to destroy the sacred freely in Saint-Domingue; it is often tion." Raynal's book circulated himself had conthat Toussaint Louverture had read it. Raynal claimed administrators in charge of the colonies, and colonections with royal influence official policy. Other critics nists feared that his ideas might arguing that the cost challenged colonial policy on economic grounds, outweighed the of defending and administering overseas territories profits they produced. the decades before the revoThe French government's actions during While some officials hoped lution were confused and often contradictory. concerned about the to reduce the cruelty of slavery, others were more the police des of blacks entering France itself. A 1777 edict, possibility fears about racial mixing and set up a registration system noirs, expressed 8 In Saint-Domingue itself, meant to exclude blacks from the metropole." of color. new restrictions on the free population royal officials imposed the ferment under way in the New The American Revolution added to trade with Europe World. The conflict interrupted Saint-Domingue's the colonists of their and its supply of slaves from Africa, reminding White resulting from France's foreign policy. vulnerability to disruptions administration recruited free planters were alarmed when the French British forces sent to besiege men of color to join a military expedition in this unsuccessGeorgia, in 1779.Among the participants in Savannah, who would later become Toussaint ful campaign was André Rigaud, Louverture's most important political rival. seemWith the end of the American war in 1783, Saint-Domingue's for the cutoff of irresistible economic rise resumed. To make up ingly record numbers of new slave imports during the war, planters purchased arrived from France.. A decree African laborers, and a new wave of whites to trade with the 1784 opened Saint-Domingue's major ports in August welcomed by the colonists, this newlyindependent United States. Eagerly merchant interests. breach of the exclusif was bitterly opposed by French colonists were jolted they appreciated the new trade law, the Although issued ordinances on 3 December when the French government some of the worst abuses of and 23 December 1785 intended to mitigate to keep Masters and plantation managers were required the slave system. to their slaves, and accurate records of the food and clothing provided the 1784 opened Saint-Domingue's major ports in August welcomed by the colonists, this newlyindependent United States. Eagerly merchant interests. breach of the exclusif was bitterly opposed by French colonists were jolted they appreciated the new trade law, the Although issued ordinances on 3 December when the French government some of the worst abuses of and 23 December 1785 intended to mitigate to keep Masters and plantation managers were required the slave system. to their slaves, and accurate records of the food and clothing provided --- Page 35 --- 26 A Colonial Society in a Revolutionary Era Code noir allowing slaves to complain about misthe provisions of the colonists reacted violently to what they treatment were restated. The "despotism." "This edict viodenounced as an example of metropolitan in the hands of the lates the sacred rights of property, and puts a dagger to someone control over their discipline and their regime slaves, by giving > of them wrote. 9 To silence this opposition, other than their masters," one shut down the Conseil supérieur, in January 1787 the French government and merged it with the court in the main law court in Cap Français, the white colonists, some Port-au-Prince. This measure further angered in 1768-9. to call for a revolt like the movement of whom were ready French attempt to deal By the beginning of 1787, the government's the chain of events that financial problems had started with its growing revolution two years later. Saint-Domingue's would lead to a full-fledged crisis of 1787 white colonists followed the stages of the pre-revolutionary it to their own and tried to calculate how to turn and 1788 closely, realized that they faced a new danger. advantage. At the same time, they French reformers led by a wellIn Paris in February 1788, a group of founded the Society of the Jacques-Pierre Brissot, known pamphleteer, by the British campaign to abolish the Friends of the Blacks. Inspired denounced slavery as a violation of slave trade, the Friends of the Blacks number of wealthy aristoIts members, who included a natural rights. the colonies, shared the general European prejucrats with properties in civilization." The society's dice that blacks were the products of a primitive that, its members manifestoes called for a gradual phasing out of slavery Despite to the interests of slaveowners. claimed, would do no damage of the Friends of the Blacks the moderation of its program, the Society the ideals of liberty and clearly underlined the contradiction between movement in France was equality that the self-proclaimed "patriot" life. The fact that the French demanding and the realities of colonial made the white colotolerated the society's public meetings government determined to defend their own interests. nists even more Saint-Domingue and the French Revolution announced, in the summer of 1788, that When Louis XVI's ministers the Estates General, to they were going to summon an elected assembly, landowners in Saintdeal with the monarchy's financial crisis, white seats for themselves. immediately began a campaign to obtain Domingue in France was equality that the self-proclaimed "patriot" life. The fact that the French demanding and the realities of colonial made the white colotolerated the society's public meetings government determined to defend their own interests. nists even more Saint-Domingue and the French Revolution announced, in the summer of 1788, that When Louis XVI's ministers the Estates General, to they were going to summon an elected assembly, landowners in Saintdeal with the monarchy's financial crisis, white seats for themselves. immediately began a campaign to obtain Domingue --- Page 36 --- A Colonial Society in a Revolutionary Era 27 cast the colonists as victims of an arbitrary government Their spokesmen consultation and favored metrothat imposed rules on them without that the enthuRecognizing politan merchants over plantation-owners. France made an overt defense of siasm for liberty that was sweeping importance of the colonies slavery risky, they emphasized the economic Blacks of the Society of the Friends of the promoting and accused The Friends of the Blacks tried to persuade impractical utopian ideas. to include calls for the reform or local electoral assemblies in France that they drew abolition of slavery in the cahiers, or lists of grievances mentioned first months of 1789. Few of the cahiers actually up in the identified the institution as a violation slavery, but those that did clearly 1789, when the depuand Christian values. On June of natural rights of France's commoners, took ties of the Third Estate, the representatives and the country's privileged the radical step of challenging the king themselves the the clergy and the nobility, by proclaiming white colonists groups, the would-be representatives of the National Assembly, threw themselves into the metropolitan supported them. Some colonists one ofthe main leaders revolutionary movement.] Moreau de Saint-Méry, administration's actions in Saint-Domingue, of protests against the royal afternoon of 14 July 1789, the presided over the Paris city council on the day the Bastille was stormed.' 10 Assembly voiced objecAlthough many members of the new National 1789 the deputies voted to give Saint-Domingue tions to slavery, on 4 July part of the acknowledging the colonies as an integral six seats, thereby some colonists By this time, Saint-Domingue new national community. that the new national legislature, in had begun to realize the danger laws that would which they were only a small minority, might pass by the institution of slavery, but their protests were ignored endanger who were eager to become deputies. other colonial property-owners National Assembly deputies had Given that as many as 150 of the 1,200 unlikely that that economic interest in the colonies, it seemed a direct the islands' prosperity. The situbody would do anything to jeopardize 1789, which after the storming of the Bastille on 14 July ation changed movement in a radical direction. Three pushed the French revolutionary voted to abolish all 1789, the National Assembly weeks later, on 4 August social hierarchy in France. One deputy the special privileges that defined slavery as well, although called for the assembly to consider abolishing however, the assembly his motion was ignored. On 26 August 1789, and Citizen, whose Declaration of the Rights of Man passed its famous situbody would do anything to jeopardize 1789, which after the storming of the Bastille on 14 July ation changed movement in a radical direction. Three pushed the French revolutionary voted to abolish all 1789, the National Assembly weeks later, on 4 August social hierarchy in France. One deputy the special privileges that defined slavery as well, although called for the assembly to consider abolishing however, the assembly his motion was ignored. On 26 August 1789, and Citizen, whose Declaration of the Rights of Man passed its famous --- Page 37 --- 28 A Colonial Society in a Revolutionary Era first article proclaimed that "men are born and remain rights." Honoré free and equal in Mirabeau, one of the most prominent spokesmen and a member ofthe Society of Friends revolutionary in his newspaper that the clear of the Blacks, insisted "there are not, and meaning of the Declaration was that French cannot be, either in France or in any laws, any other men than free men, country under Thea assemblyignored Mirabeauand men equal to one another." the Declaration of Rights decided that the question ofwhether later date. Slaveowners applied to the colonies would be settled at in the colonies understood a In Saint-Domingue, the local authorities the danger, however. any newspapers from France because prohibited the circulation of spread. A short-lived slave of the subversive ideas they might in August 1789 stoked uprising in the French colony of the white colonists' fears about Martinique from France on their slaves. the impact of news While Saint-Domingue's white colonists tried to revolutionary crisis to gain exploit the French ing slavery, members of the autonomy for themselves without endangerprinciples of 1789 colony'sf free population of color saw the as an opportunity for them to new Already in 1784 a free colored landowner, gain political rights. France to lobby on behalf of his Julien Raimond, had gone to ment from group; hel had received some royal officials who saw the free colored encourageloyal to France than the whites. When whites population as more from their movement for excluded free men of color and other members representation in the Estates General, of the groupi in France objected. Raimond spokesmen for the free people of color Initially, the Parisian make an agreement with the thought they might be able to the Club Massiac whites, who had organized themselves to defend their interests. Free colored in addressed the group in August 1789, representatives common interest in arguing that all of them shared a rejected these protecting slavery. The Club Massiac members overtures, however, that in Saint-Domingue could make insisting only the white colonists any changes in the Raimond and his supporters then colony's racial system. persuading Brissot and his turned to the Friends of the Blacks, free men ofcolor would be colleagues that the granting of rights to the a blow against racial toward the eventual abolition of prejudice and a first step colonies in France would be slavery. Until 1793, debates about the men of color, rather than focused on the issue oft the rights of the free Assembly on slavery itself. In March 1790, the passed two decrees promising that the National allowed to regulate their own internal colonies would be affairs and authorizing "citizens" ot and his turned to the Friends of the Blacks, free men ofcolor would be colleagues that the granting of rights to the a blow against racial toward the eventual abolition of prejudice and a first step colonies in France would be slavery. Until 1793, debates about the men of color, rather than focused on the issue oft the rights of the free Assembly on slavery itself. In March 1790, the passed two decrees promising that the National allowed to regulate their own internal colonies would be affairs and authorizing "citizens" --- Page 38 --- A Colonial Society in a Revolutionary Era 29 assemblies for this purpose. The language of these in the colonies to elect of color were included in the decrees did not specify whether free men demanded. The white of citizens, as many French reformers them category the laws of March 1790 as giving colonists, however, interpreted excluded their rivals from the the right to decide on the matter, and they assemblies created in Saint-Domingue. new political A Colonial Revolution of royal authority after the stormIn Saint-Domingue itself, the collapse to realize its dream of ing of the Bastille allowed the white population Barbé-Marbois, who had governing itself. The royal intendant François was forced to flee the closed down the court in Cap Français in 1787, and October 1789. Colonists chose new local governments island in creating a National Guard made imitated the revolutionaries in France by appeared in the of armed white citizens. Uncensored newspapers clubs like up cities, and local "patriots" established political colony's major in France in 1789. In April 1790, an all-white those that had sprung up western port city of Saint-Marc, at a Colonial Assembly convened in the and Le in Port-au-Prince safe distance from the royal army garrisons taking steps that the Although some of its members warned against Cap. might interpret as a claim of independence, metropolitan government course. On 28 May 1790, they the majority decided on a confrontational their right to decide on all laws passed a colonial constitution asserting The document indicated concerning the internal affairs of the colony. Assembly, but its that laws would be sent to the king and the National the metropole's suggested that the colonists did not recognize the language measures. When news of right to disapprove of their assembly's it an uproar: supactions reached France, provoked Colonial Assembly's denounced a plot to make Saint-Domingue porters of the revolution even to turn it over to France's main independent of France, and possibly backed by those whites rival, Britain. In the colony, the royal governor, used force to disperse who had opposed the Colonial Assembly's actions, stationed in SaintSailors on the French warship Leopard, the deputies. mutinied in support ofthe assembly; they seized Marc's harbor, however, of the white colonists back to control of the ship and took eighty-five actions. Although the France, where they denounced the governor's for undermining National Assembly sternly rebuked these "Leopardins" to France's main independent of France, and possibly backed by those whites rival, Britain. In the colony, the royal governor, used force to disperse who had opposed the Colonial Assembly's actions, stationed in SaintSailors on the French warship Leopard, the deputies. mutinied in support ofthe assembly; they seized Marc's harbor, however, of the white colonists back to control of the ship and took eighty-five actions. Although the France, where they denounced the governor's for undermining National Assembly sternly rebuked these "Leopardins" --- Page 39 --- 30 A Colonial Society in a Revolutionary Era metropolitan authority, they were allowed to stay in France, joined the Club Massiac in where they tionary denouncing the danger of allowing revoluprinciples to spread to the colonies. While the whites in Saint-Domingue 1789 and 1790, other parts ofthe disputed among themselves in ing that the revolution in colony's population were also recognizFrance might the black slaves heard about the change their lives. How much news is hard to measure. revolution and how they interpreted the about Despite the ban on French events there circulated widely in the newspapers, reports undoubtedly heard their masters colony, and some slaves natural rights. In October using the new language of freedom and 1789, Julien Raimond's some blacks had heard that the red, brother told him that being wornl by many whites stood white, and blue cockade or ribbon had threatened to rise for "liberty and equality" and that they up for their own freedom.' 12 slaves imported to the colony reached The number of new with more than 30,000 its all-time peak in those years, being brought from Africa new arrivals could hardly have in 1790 alone; these the start of the slave mastered Creole, let alone French, before uprising in 1791. The free better access to information.) Julien population of color had sive network of Raimond wrote regularly to an extenefforts correspondents in the island, on their behalf. Some members telling them about his their own to try to obtain the of this group took initiatives of seemed to rights that the new French guarantee them. In November, 1789, a principles the town of Petit Goâve was lynched white local official in local free men of color draw by other whites when he helped the Matters took a up a petition on their own behalf. more explosive turn in October Ogé, a free man of color who had been in 1790, when Vincent to Paris in 1789, returned Saint-Domingue and organized an armed revolt secretly his group in the mountains south of the among members of sugar-growing area of the North Province Northern Plain, the richest revolution, Ogé had been one of the (see Figure 1.2). Prior to the in Le Cap: he owned extensive most prosperous free men of color to dealing with whites property in the city and was accustomed National on a basis of equality. Ogé was convinced that the Assembly's decrees of March 1790 had been rights to his group; when he learned that the meant to grant tinued to exclude them, he decided colony's whites had conattracted only a few hundred to act. His call for insurrection that he was not calling for followers. Ogé was careful to make it clear of the whites he the abolition of slavery, but he warned some encountered that he might do SO if his demands were --- Page 40 --- Figure 1.2 Vincent Ogé calls on the free men of This nineteenth-century illustration color to demand their rights. wearing the uniform of the French shows Ogé, carrying the French flag and comed by a group of free men of color revolutionary National Guard, being welOctober 1790. Ogé and his on his return to Saint-Domingue in did not call for the supporters, many of them slaveowners themselves, emancipation of the slaves, but resort to force to challenge racial they were the first group to Source: hierarchy in the colony. Bibliothèque nationale, Paris, Cabinet des Estampes. This nineteenth-century illustration color to demand their rights. wearing the uniform of the French shows Ogé, carrying the French flag and comed by a group of free men of color revolutionary National Guard, being welOctober 1790. Ogé and his on his return to Saint-Domingue in did not call for the supporters, many of them slaveowners themselves, emancipation of the slaves, but resort to force to challenge racial they were the first group to Source: hierarchy in the colony. Bibliothèque nationale, Paris, Cabinet des Estampes. --- Page 41 --- 32 A Colonial Society in a Revolutionary Era rejected. White forces soon dispersed Oge's followers. ciates fled across the border into the He and a few assobut the Spanish authorities Spanish colony of Santo trial in Cap turned them over to the French.. After Domingo, a Français, Ogé was tortured to death in Le quick 1791, and over twenty of his Cap in February Although supporters were also executed. Ogé's insurrection was effects throughout quickly put down, it had major colony's whites' Saint-Domingue and in France. For the first time, greatest fear - a violent insurrection the of racial hierarchy - had materialized. against the system the blacks in order to Ogé's threat to offer freedom to the stakes in the island's gain enough support to defeat the whites raised brutal racial conflict to a new level, and the response made the free people of color realize that whites' likely to obtain the rights they sought they were not more than 600 armed free of peacefully. In the South Province, would eventually become men color, including André Rigaud, who tion outside the the group's main leader, gathered on a capital city of Cayes and beat plantalocal whites. 13 As agitation off an armed attack from among the free some of the colony's slaves also people of color increased, began to organize the January 1791, a conspiracy against whites. In ered in the Port- Salut district involving several hundred blacks was discovin the South Province. The only force would lead to any change in the impression that strengthened by the violence with which colony's racial order was the members of the some white colonists denounced colony's other racial de Beauvois, a member of groups. In 1790 the chevalier Cap Français's science pamphlet asserting that "nature has created academy, published a has created several species of animals." several species of men, as she better than apes, and they could Blacks, he claimed, were little for people of mixed never be part of a civilized society. As subordinate race, Beauvois insisted they should be in position, forced to work for the benefit of kept a forbidden from owning land or the whites, and Beauvois's having whites working for them." pamphlet was one of the first pseudo-scientific racism that would expressions in print of the world in the nineteenth and become widespread in the western In France, the news of Ogé's twentieth centuries. execution racial equality and defenders of galvanized both supporters of Blacks denounced the harsh slavery. Brissot and the Friends of the claimed, had all the punishment inflicted on a man who, they of the slaveowners' qualifications needed to be a French citizen. Members racial lobby responded by pushing to make sure that their privileges were protected by French law. In mid-May 1791, the -scientific racism that would expressions in print of the world in the nineteenth and become widespread in the western In France, the news of Ogé's twentieth centuries. execution racial equality and defenders of galvanized both supporters of Blacks denounced the harsh slavery. Brissot and the Friends of the claimed, had all the punishment inflicted on a man who, they of the slaveowners' qualifications needed to be a French citizen. Members racial lobby responded by pushing to make sure that their privileges were protected by French law. In mid-May 1791, the --- Page 42 --- A Colonial Society in a Revolutionary Era National Assembly held its issues. The colonial longest and most heated debate about these deputy Moreau de nents head on by moving that the Saint-Méry challenged his opponew French guarantee that no changes would be made in the constitution explicitly without the consent of the white institution of slavery colonists. An Robespierre, one of the leaders of outraged Maximilien replied that it would be better Assembly's radical Jacobin faction, violate "to let the colonies a principle"by perish rather than of a free mentioning the word "slavery"in the country. The best Robespierre and his allies constitution however, was an agreement to replace the word could obtain, "unfree persons." "slaves" with the phrase Unhappy at having allowed themselves to be ing the legality of slavery, a majority of the pressured into recognizment to this law deputies voted for an amendproposed by the deputy granted full Jean-François Rewbell that political rights to free men of color been free. This "Rewbell amendment" whose parents had also minority of the free people of would have benefited only a color, but it did for the first challenge the notion that only racially time directly in the colonies. The pure whites could be full citizens United States, significance of the law was clear to observers where newspapers closely followed in the because of its implications for the French debate Moreau de race relations throughout the Saint-Méry and his supporters were Americas. ment's passage. For two infuriated by the amendthat only the colonists years, they had fought to establish the principle themselves could decide they called "the status of questions about what Rewbell amendment, persons" in the colonies. By voting for the asserted limited as it was, the National the metropolitan Assembly had the white colonists feared that government's power to make such decisions; powers of slaveowners. the next step would be a law limiting the Their fears were vote to send a three-member Civil heightened by the assembly's oversee the Commission to to implementation of the law. Saint-Domingue First Civil Commission Although the members of this whites to were supposed to rely on persuasion to accept the new decree, theira get the by the French legislature to rein in the appointment represented an effort dency to act as white colonists' dangerous tenthough they were entitled to When news of the law of 15 govern themselves. the end of June, May 1791 reached at virtually the entire white Saint-Domingue General Philibert population rose in revolt. Blanchelande, the new the island in November 1790, had governor who had arrived in to tell the French government that he --- Page 43 --- A Colonial Society in a Revolutionary Era would not be able to enforce the law if it was officially transmitted to him. The colonists' lobby launched a determined campaign to overturn the decree; on 24 September 1791, shortly before it dissolved, the National Assembly reversed itself and voted to leave the fate of the rights of free colored persons entirely in the hands of the white colonists. Meanwhile, however, the members of the First Civil Commission had already sailed for Saint-Dominguesthey would arrive only to learn that one of the main purposes of their mission had been overturned, thereby adding to the confusion in the colony. Because it took two months for news to cross the Atlantic, the assembly handed the white colonists this victory before anyone in France knew of the event that was to totally transform the situation in Saint-Domingue: on 22 August 1791, a massive slave insurrection had begun in the North Province. in the hands of the white colonists. Meanwhile, however, the members of the First Civil Commission had already sailed for Saint-Dominguesthey would arrive only to learn that one of the main purposes of their mission had been overturned, thereby adding to the confusion in the colony. Because it took two months for news to cross the Atlantic, the assembly handed the white colonists this victory before anyone in France knew of the event that was to totally transform the situation in Saint-Domingue: on 22 August 1791, a massive slave insurrection had begun in the North Province. --- Page 44 --- The Uprisings, 1791-1793 Haitians today imagine the beginnings of the struggle that lead to their country's independence, often Wthey picture a scene like that portrayed in a frequently reproduced painting by the twentieth-century. artist Ulrick Jean-Pierre, The Ceremony ofBois Caïman (Figure 2.1). In the center of Jean-Pierre's dramatic painting, the insurrection's leader Boukman Dutty, a tall black man dressed in the red and blue colors of Haiti's national flag, stands, surrounded by a group of blacks gathered in a forest clearing, and looks up to a lightning- -streaked sky. He brandishes a vodou rattle or ason in one hand and a broad-bladed machete in the other. Next to him, at the base of a sacred tree, a barebreasted woman is preparing to sacrifice a pig whose blood the dozens of black men and women around her will drink as they swear an oath to fight to the death for their freedom. Jean-Pierre's painting is not based on eyewitness accounts - no first-hand testimony about the Bois Caïman gathering has come down to us - but it captures some vital elements of the Haitian movement. The slaves who took the risk of challenging the powerful system of white domination were indeed making a dramatic decision, one that they knew might cost them their lives. No doubt they sought courage and determination in the religious beliefs that helped unite a population made up of descendants of many different African ethnic groups. They would need whatever weapons they could obtain, beginning with the knives they used in the sugar-cane fields. The total intransigence ofSaint-Domingues white slaveowners left them no choice but to resort to violence to claim their freedom. A Concise History of the Haitian Revolution, First Edition. Jeremy D. Popkin. O 2012 Jeremy D. Popkin. Published 2012 by Blackwell Publishing Ltd. --- Page 45 --- 36 The Uprisings, 1791-1793 SATE Figure 2.1 Ulrick Jean-Pierre, recreation of the ceremony The Ceremony of Bois Caiman. In 1791 slave uprising, thei supposedly held at Bois Caïman to launch this modern and a vodou ason insurrectionaryl leader the August Haitians, dramatic or rattle, while a vodou priestess Boukman Dutty holds a machete the connection images like this one evoke the sacrifices a pig. To modern with them from between their struggle for freedom courage and of their ancestors and Source: Africa. the beliefs blacks Collection of Mr. and Mrs. Farere brought Dyer, New Orleans, Louisiana. The Slave Uprising in the North Province While recreations of the start of the Jean-Pierre'sp painting Haitian Revolution work with the help us imagine the drama oft that such as Ulrick precise surviving documentary event, historians the Ppicture of how the slave evidence to reconstruct a more absence of actual insurrection of August 1791 uprising, many testimony from any of those who began. In the time, the questions about its outbreak helped plan the incited white colonists were remain to rebellion by convinced that the unanswerable. slaves At of the French abolitionist propaganda from had been slavery Revolution's debates about France and echoes reformers had always liberty. In fact, French done away with insisted that the antiover time, with institution could only be compensation for the slaveowners, and many testimony from any of those who began. In the time, the questions about its outbreak helped plan the incited white colonists were remain to rebellion by convinced that the unanswerable. slaves At of the French abolitionist propaganda from had been slavery Revolution's debates about France and echoes reformers had always liberty. In fact, French done away with insisted that the antiover time, with institution could only be compensation for the slaveowners, and --- Page 46 --- The Uprisings, 1791-1793 37 had actually that any of their printed propaganda there is no evidence slaves had reached the slaves. On the other hand, Saint-Domingue's the whites in been able to observe the growing disunity among certainly the whites and the free men of color, which the the colony and between their enemies divided, slaves could Ogé rebellion had highlighted. With to seize their own freedom certainly see that they had an opportunity the individual forms of through collective action, quite different from in before. The like marronnage that some ofthem had engaged resistance XVI had actually granted them new rights, persistent rumor that Louis his decree, may but that the white colonists were refusing to implement visible resistance The whites' very have provided further encouragement. 1791 certainly made this Assembly's decree of 15 May to the National idea plausible. at the time, that slaves from a We do know, from evidence gathered on Sunday, in the Northern Plain met together number of plantations rebellion, not in a forest 1791, eight days before the start ofthe 14 August paintings, but at a clearing like the one depicted in Ulrick Jean-Pierre's about the Lenormand de Mézy estate, a large plantation gathering on The slaves who organized the plot five miles outside of Cap Français. on the often those who occupied the most responsible positions were of commandeurs or slave drivers, who plantations, including a number coachmen, whose positions gave were accustomed to giving orders, and At their to make connections on other plantations. them opportunities set a date on which they would meeting, the conspirators presumably and there is some simultaneously attack their own masters' plantations, in the to coordinate this with an uprising indication that they hoped other things, they might have nearby city of Cap Français, where, among Assembly that was about to kill the members of the new Colonial hoped 1791, however, slaves on one plantation to convene there. On 16 August Under interrogation, one of jumped the gun and set fire to a building. Fortunately for the plotters, them revealed the details of the conspiracy. seriously. The secret white authorities did not take his confession the known as Bois Caîman, which probably meeting in the woods at a site have included a vodou ceretook place on the night of 21 August, may like the one attributed to mony, and perhaps an inspirational speech thirty years later, in account first published Boukman in a romanticized told his fellw-conspirators which thei insurrectionary leader supposedly ("Listen to the liberty which "Coutél la libetéli palé nan coeur nous tous" main of the in the hearts of all of us"). Probably the purpose speaks is Caîman, which probably meeting in the woods at a site have included a vodou ceretook place on the night of 21 August, may like the one attributed to mony, and perhaps an inspirational speech thirty years later, in account first published Boukman in a romanticized told his fellw-conspirators which thei insurrectionary leader supposedly ("Listen to the liberty which "Coutél la libetéli palé nan coeur nous tous" main of the in the hearts of all of us"). Probably the purpose speaks --- Page 47 --- The Uprisings, 1791-1793 to decide how to react to the danger that the meeting, however, was the slaves' plan. Since the first assaults on whites might have discovered must have occurred the next night, the conspirators the plantations decided to act as quickly as possible."' that the dangerous ideas Even though they had warned for two years the plantationRevolution might lead the slaves to revolt, of the French certain of their superiority, they owners were caught off-guard. Smugly seemed SO docile believe that the black slaves who normally could not The manager of the could have organized themselves sO effectively. by his one of the first to be overrun, was awakened Clément plantation, ofthe night. He quieted the animal and went dog'sl barking in the middle a few minutes later by the back to sleep, only to be jolted awake again the noise who had surrounded his house. "Hearing sound of black slaves out of my bed and shouted, "Who they were making, he wrote, "Ijumped answered me: It is death!" His life was goes there?' A voice like thunder leader, Boukman, who had saved' by thei intervention oftheinsurrection's) whites were not sO lucky: a number been a slave on that plantation. Other slaves helped them escape of them were killed, although in many cases fields burned set fire to their plantations. The sugar-cane even as they fires could be seen miles away in Cap fiercely: the smoke from the Français (Figure 2.2). in the densely popuMoving rapidly from plantation to plantation Northern Plain, the first bands of insurgents gathlated flatlands of the Within a few days, almost the ered increasing numbers of supporters. in the colony, had been whole ofthe plain, the richest sugar-growing area in the had hundreds of the smaller coffee plantations devastated, as the manager of mountains bordering it. The black insurgents guarding less than told him that their plan was "nothing the Clément plantation some who didn't own property, the destruction of all the whites except and of setting fire to all some surgeons, and some women, some priests, masters ofthe country.", Although the plantations and makingthemselvest male slaves who had occupied relathe leaders of the insurrection were the movement had tively high-status positions on the plantations, well.A white man taken support from the rest of the black population as and other whites were prisoner by the insurgents reported that as he and women assemmarched through the countryside, "old Negro men insulting the their doors were abasing us by their jargon, bled before Slave women, often the victims former masters in their Creole language. sometimes took the of sexual exploitation by their white overseers, the plantations and makingthemselvest male slaves who had occupied relathe leaders of the insurrection were the movement had tively high-status positions on the plantations, well.A white man taken support from the rest of the black population as and other whites were prisoner by the insurgents reported that as he and women assemmarched through the countryside, "old Negro men insulting the their doors were abasing us by their jargon, bled before Slave women, often the victims former masters in their Creole language. sometimes took the of sexual exploitation by their white overseers, --- Page 48 --- The Uprisings, 1791-1793 39 Figure 2.2 Esclavage: La Révolte des esclaves Noirs à highly unrealistic engraving, part of a series Saint-Dominique. This Revolution, emphasizes the violence that depicting scenes from the French propaganda during this period. Blacks was a major theme of pro-slavery setting fire to plantation are shown butchering helpless whites and buildings. The original caption blames the "contradictory decrees of the National Assembly" revolt on the nature of slavery. rather than on the oppressive Source: Paris, Musée Carnavalet, White Images/Scala WH09964D. opportunity for revenge, On one white man who had been left for dead plantation, a group of them, finding a pulling up their skirts in front of his by the insurgents, taunted him by alive, they beat him until he lost face. When they realized he was still however, black women consciousness. In a number of cases, testified that her life had protected white women. A white woman been saved at the of prisoner by her own slaves, who hid her in their beginning the insurrection slave women who intervened huts, and later by other former cared for her with the black leaders on her on the plantations they had behalf and occupied. pulling up their skirts in front of his by the insurgents, taunted him by alive, they beat him until he lost face. When they realized he was still however, black women consciousness. In a number of cases, testified that her life had protected white women. A white woman been saved at the of prisoner by her own slaves, who hid her in their beginning the insurrection slave women who intervened huts, and later by other former cared for her with the black leaders on her on the plantations they had behalf and occupied. --- Page 49 --- The Uprisings, 1791-1793 the initial shock of the uprising, many of the North Overwhelmed by Suddenly, every) non-white seemed Province'swhites succumbed to panic. for the uprisenemy. Black slaves suspected of sympathy like a potential and on the plantations. Convinced ing were massacred in Cap Français conceived such an elaborate that the slaves themselves could not have whom they accused of whites blamed the free men of color, plan, many execution of Vincent Ogé. In Cap Français, a seeking revenge for the ofthat group before the authoriwhite mob killed a number of members would need the assistance ties intervened, pointing out that the whites of the free men of color to fight the uprising. The rapid spread of the several months led white civilians to accuse insurrection during its first the North Province's military garthe officers of the Régiment du Cap, sabotaging efforts to repress it. The royal governor, rison, of deliberately from all sides by whites demanding General Blanchelande, was besieged while the whites in Cap Français protection for their rural properties, vulnerable if he sent troops into the protested that he was leaving them that had just begun to meet countryside. He and the Colonial Assembly appeals for help when the uprising broke out sent urgent in Cap Français and Jamaica and to the colonies of Santo Domingo to the neighboring informing the French government of the United States, but they delayed decree of 15 May 1791 crisis. In the wake of the National Assembly's white colonists had come granting rights to some free men of color, the also feared as their enemy; they to regard the metropolitan government French merchants from sending that news of the uprising would deter themselves, the While the whites quarreled among ships to the colony. A second wave of attacks on plantainsurrection continued to spread. control of the eastern part of the tions in October 1791 gave the blacks province, along the border with Santo Domingo. The Revolt of the Free Men of Color in the North Province was heightened by The shock of the slave uprising kind of insurrection outbreak of a different the almost simultaneous West Province, near the among the free men of color in Saint-Domingue's and The two movements were not coordinated, capital of Port-au-Prince. The free men of color, many of them slatheir goals were quite different. the immediate end of slavery veownersin their own right, were not seeking of color did recruit the destruction of the plantation system. Free men or Domingo. The Revolt of the Free Men of Color in the North Province was heightened by The shock of the slave uprising kind of insurrection outbreak of a different the almost simultaneous West Province, near the among the free men of color in Saint-Domingue's and The two movements were not coordinated, capital of Port-au-Prince. The free men of color, many of them slatheir goals were quite different. the immediate end of slavery veownersin their own right, were not seeking of color did recruit the destruction of the plantation system. Free men or --- Page 50 --- The Uprisings, 1791-1793 41 for them, but they kept control over the movesome black slaves to fight assault on the plantation system. ment and did not let it turn into a general movement in October 1790, Like Vincent Ogé, the leader of the short-lived with the whites that the free men of color demanded the political equality had staged his Revolution's principles seemed to imply. Ogé the French where whites heavily outnumbered the insurrection in the North Province, in the west in August 1791 free men of color; the movement that began color often outnumbered in rural districts in which free men of took root the whites' refusal to accept the National Assembly's the whites. Angered by number of districts in the West and law of 15 May 1791, delegates from a town of Mirebalais on 7 August South Provinces gathered in the mountain Province had supposedly 1791. Whereas the black slaves in the North the woods, the free men organized their movement at a vodou ceremonyl in make their plans. in the local Catholic church to of color met openly were André Rigaud, who Among those who participated in the movement Louverture, and would later become the most important rival to Toussaint them would rule Alexandre Pétion and Jean-Paul Boyer, who between The black insurHaiti for much ofthe first half of the nineteenth century. individual whites and in the north were joined by only a handful of in the west gents but the movement of the free men of color free men of color, white plantation-owners from was supported by some of the conservative of the racial divide, they blanc faction, who felt that, in spite the pompon fellow than with the had more in common with these property-owners 1791, the blancs of the pompon rouge party. On 5 September reckless petits of Mirebalais, the center of the movement, free men of color in the parish white landowners that was soon with the local made a treaty or concordat concordats, the whites were forced copied in several other districts. In these idol of and confess that they had "sacrificed to the prejudice" to publicly incredible abuse of the laws and oppressed the free men of color "by an of the 24 They had to agree to the replacement the power of government." their districts with new institutions in all-white local governments in which members of both racial groups would be represented. The Colonists' Response movements in the north and west Formidable as the two insurrectionary to them was, the looked, and incoherent as the initial white response imagine crumble. Although we may colonial order did not completely ed to the prejudice" to publicly incredible abuse of the laws and oppressed the free men of color "by an of the 24 They had to agree to the replacement the power of government." their districts with new institutions in all-white local governments in which members of both racial groups would be represented. The Colonists' Response movements in the north and west Formidable as the two insurrectionary to them was, the looked, and incoherent as the initial white response imagine crumble. Although we may colonial order did not completely --- Page 51 --- The Uprisings, 1791-1793 strength steadily, in the black insurrection like an avalanche, gathering to achieve true rebellions throughout history, it struggled fact, like most was, not all slaves were ready to risk mass support. Oppressive as slavery of Borgne, west of lives attempting to overthrow it. In the parish their his slaves that they would the Northern Plain, one slaveowner persuaded if they joined the insurlose their own huts and their private food plots defended that region rection. He formed them into a private militia that bossale slaves were of the recently arrived for the next two years. Many warfare, such as ambushes of experienced in the methods of African by piercing small units in remote areas, and their mass attacks, signaled of the insurblown on lambi or conch shells that became a symbol blasts but these tactics did not allow them to storm rection, terrified the whites, taken refuge. When the heavily the coastal cities where the whites had face them in regular battles, armed white troops did force the blacks to disadvantage. lack of firearms left them at a serious the insurgents' battles the blacks' courage, but, Whites who took part in these recognized Revolution, the black fighters as would be true throughout the Haitian One white colonist estisuffered far heavier casualties than the whites. first few months of that 4,000 black insurgents were killed in the mated additional 4,000 captured; the blacks, he claimed, theinsurrection,s and an fifth of their men. In contrast, the only had muskets and rifles for a estimated in January 1792 that members of the First Civil Commission of the fighting." This whites had been killed in the first four months number, but it was not the wholesale massacre depicted was a substantial the white colonists sent back to France. in much of the propaganda situation in the North Province had By mid-November, the military established a line of forts, the begun to stabilize. Governor Blanchelande connecting the "Cordon of the West," to block the mountain passes in the north from North and West Provinces, which isolated the uprising the black Meanwhile, divisions developed among the rest of the colony. and themselves leaders who had led the first wave of attacks proclaimed who had tortured Jeannot Bullet, a particularly violent man as' "generals." death, was executed by a rival, Jean-François several white prisoners to the insurrection's main leader, Papillon. In mid-November, Boukman, to one white chronikilled in battle with the white forces. According was the black fighters: "They ran this way and that cler, the news demoralized with this cry: 'Boukman tué, across the plain, making the air resound will become of us The nous val" ("Boukman is dead, what of que ça of color also suffered a setback when news movement of the free men rançois several white prisoners to the insurrection's main leader, Papillon. In mid-November, Boukman, to one white chronikilled in battle with the white forces. According was the black fighters: "They ran this way and that cler, the news demoralized with this cry: 'Boukman tué, across the plain, making the air resound will become of us The nous val" ("Boukman is dead, what of que ça of color also suffered a setback when news movement of the free men --- Page 52 --- The Uprisings, 1791-1793 43 the French National Assembly's decision, repeal its decree of 15 May 1791 reached on 24 September 1791, to of that group had justified their Saint-Domingue. The members merely demanding rights that the uprising by claiming that they were them; now the French assembly metropolitan had government had granted mining their claim that it was the whites publicly disavowed them, underIt was at this moment that the who were violating the law. the man who would leadership of the black movement and lead eventually take over first began to take a visible role in it to the brink of success Louverture had affairs. Whether the future Toussaint north is unclear. participated in the planning of the insurrection in the Toussaint In contrast to the other leaders of the was no longer a slave in 1791; he had movement, many years earlier. Unlike most of the leaders gained his own freedom men of color in the colony, of the movement of free and he had not become however, Toussaint had no white an independent ancestry, working for his former owner, Bayon de property-owner. In 1791 he was of his family were still slaves. Libertat, and the other members Libertat and other whites Toussaint's connections with Bayon de were close enough that a early as 1793 that he had actually story circulated as behalf. organized the slave on According to this conspiracy theory, uprising their phies of Toussaint, wealthy whites in the mentioned in many biograa limited slave uprising in order island had decided to provoke to ment that the demonstrate to the French governundermining propaganda of the Society of the Friends of the Blacks France's precious colony. was against the abolitionists in They hoped to cause a backlash ideas and France that would discredit strengthen not only their own but revolutionary XVI. Toussaint supposedly position that of King Louis volunteered to act as their overheard whites discussing the idea and agent. No firm to confirm this story, but the evidence has ever been found nized that he could notion that Toussaint might have recogexploit the whites' idea and to launch a movement that would lead use it as an opportunity with the image of the future to freedom for the blacks fits well who black leader as an always saw further than his rivals. unusually; gifted politician Whether or not they had white however, it is clear that once the blacks encouragement to start their uprising, ment, and once their leader failed to destroy the white governblack generals Boukman had been killed, the decided to try to reach an surviving government to end the uprising. Toussaint agreement with the colonial which was played a key role in this effort, encouraged by the arrival of the First Civil Commission in future to freedom for the blacks fits well who black leader as an always saw further than his rivals. unusually; gifted politician Whether or not they had white however, it is clear that once the blacks encouragement to start their uprising, ment, and once their leader failed to destroy the white governblack generals Boukman had been killed, the decided to try to reach an surviving government to end the uprising. Toussaint agreement with the colonial which was played a key role in this effort, encouraged by the arrival of the First Civil Commission in --- Page 53 --- The Uprisings, 1791-1793 Saint-Domingue. at the end of November 1791. The sioners, Philippe Roume, Edmond de three civil commisde Mirbeck, had been sent to Saint-Léger, and Frédéric Ignace announced that the French try to restore order in the colony; they also drawn king, when he accepted the new up by the French National constitution issued an amnesty for Assembly in September 1791, had two of any political crimes committed years the revolution. The two during the first had now emerged as the self-proclaimed black generals who his colleague movementsprincipal leaders, Jean-François: sand Georges Biassou, were encouraged prisoners to hope that this by some of their white end of the conflict. In early measure might open the door to a peaceful December, to end the fighting and Jean-François and Biassou offered tions in exchange for persuade their followers to return to their freedom for themselves and few plantaa promise that the returning slaves would other leaders and had done during the insurrection. not be punished for what they an important rolei in these Behind the scenes, Toussaint played and Biassou to moderate negotiations, their consistently urginglean-François from the demands. The first political document revolutionary period on which his dated 12 December 1791, signature appears is a letter offer. urging the whites to accept the black Toussaint also intervened to protect the white leaders' by the insurgents and to urge the black leaders prisoners captured in dealing with them. From the to follow legal procedures the violence of the uprising and start, Toussaint clearly sought to limit of a new social and guidethe movement toward the creation political order that would be groups that made up the colony's acceptable to all the In hindsight, the negotiations population. whites at the end of 1791 mark between the black leaders and the would recur often in the first instance of a phenomenon that benefit Haitian history: a small group of leaders themselves at the expense of the mass of trying to Even as they bargained with the the black population. and Toussaint whites, however, Jean-François, were aware that their followers Biassou, settlement. When the white colonists might not accept such a als, the black generals rejected the black leaders' proposthousand responded by warning them that "A men are in arms and you will realize from that hundred entirely dependent on the general will, and what that we are titude of negroes from the Coast a will! That of a mulof French but who, however, [of Africa] who barely know two words war >9 The black in their country were accustomed to leaders' ability to control their making put to the test: the whites, confident that followers was never the French government would a als, the black generals rejected the black leaders' proposthousand responded by warning them that "A men are in arms and you will realize from that hundred entirely dependent on the general will, and what that we are titude of negroes from the Coast a will! That of a mulof French but who, however, [of Africa] who barely know two words war >9 The black in their country were accustomed to leaders' ability to control their making put to the test: the whites, confident that followers was never the French government would --- Page 54 --- The Uprisings, 1791-1793 45 down the insurrection, refused to accept their soon send troops to put Province hardened into a staleproposals. The situation in the North devastated Northern Plain controlled most of the mate: the insurgents and east of it, but they were unable to break and the mountains south had established in other parts of the through the defenses the whites the arrival of some 6,000 solregion. The whites, for their part, despite themselves to defeat the diers in early 1792, were unable to organize in The outcome of events would depend on developments insurrection. and, above all, on the course of the revolution other parts of the colony in France itself. in the North Province, the situWhile these events were taking place West and the South Provinces was also changing. Although ation in the led by Hanus de of the white royalist planters in the countryside, some the concordats demanded by the free Jumécourt, were willing to accept the urban white populamen of color, the petits blancs who dominated any concity, Port-au-Prince, violently opposed tion of the area's largest face of this the cessions to the free men of color. In the intransigence, of black slaves, leaders of the free men of color recruited an armed troop the Swiss soldiers nicknamed "les Suisses" ("the Swiss") because, like for they were willing to fight pay. hired to fight in the French royal army, Port-au-Prince under siege. With these allies, the free men of color put and accept October the whites in the city were forced to capitulate By late however, they demanded that the the terms of the concordats. În return, view, slaves who had borne "Swiss" be expelled from the colony. In their for achievwhites could never be trusted again. In exchange arms against free colored leaders agreed to disarm the ing their political goals, the The white ship's cap- "Swiss" and let them be shipped out of the colony. them ashore entrusted with the mission tried unsuccessfully to put as tains of the coast of Central America or to sell them on a deserted part When these efforts failed, most slaves in the British colony of Jamaica. where a number of of the "Swiss" were returned to Saint-Domingue, abandonment of the "Swiss" murdered by hostile whites. The them were of color created a lasting distrust between by the leaders of the free men and was remembered them and the rest of the black slave population with bitterness even after Haiti gained its independence. failed to create that led to the betrayal of the "Swiss" The negotiations of color and the whites. In the wake between the free men a lasting peace the armed free men of color were of the surrender of Port-au-Prince, festivities were held to mark the allowed to enter the city, and elaborate , abandonment of the "Swiss" murdered by hostile whites. The them were of color created a lasting distrust between by the leaders of the free men and was remembered them and the rest of the black slave population with bitterness even after Haiti gained its independence. failed to create that led to the betrayal of the "Swiss" The negotiations of color and the whites. In the wake between the free men a lasting peace the armed free men of color were of the surrender of Port-au-Prince, festivities were held to mark the allowed to enter the city, and elaborate --- Page 55 --- The Uprisings, 1791-1793 but tension between the two groups remained high. end of the fighting, between a white man and a free man On 19 November 1791, an incident in which twenty-seven square of color set off violent fighting in the city News of the events in blocks of houses and stores were burned down. of the South set off similar clashes in Cayes, the capital Port-au-Prince Grande Anse, the western tip of the long Province, and in the cities of the most which would become a stronghold of the intransigent the peninsula, revolutionary period. In the south, unlike whites throughout the whites willing to make alliances with west, there were few wealthy royalist between the whites and the free the free men of color, and the hatred whites and the black slave men of color was as bitter as that between the whites imprisin the north. In Jérémie, in the Grande Anse, insurgents of color on a ship in the harbor and deliberately oned local free men third of them survived. The West infected them with smallpox; only a puzzle of regions, South Provinces became divided into a jigsaw and whites and others by free men of color. The some of them controlled by allowed slaves in some areas to breakdown of authority in these regions situation in the north, insurrections. In contrast to the stage their own coalesce into a movement with rechowever, these slave revolts did not leaders capable of controlling a large area. ognized News of the Insurrection Spreads spread rapidly across the News of the violence in Saint-Domingue British island of Jamaica sent a Atlantic world. The government of the aid against the in September 1791 to promise delegation to Cap Français Edwards, concluded that "the case slaves, although its leader, Bryan because of the extent appeared altogether desperate from the beginning" had long 10 The Spanish in the eastern half of Hispaniola ofthe uprising. French neighbors. Some of them were quite envied the prosperity oftheir to the insurgent slaves. sell and other supplies happy to arms, gunpowder, slave had reached the late September 1791, news of the uprising the By published dramatic reports of United States, where newspapers of their properties. Southern attacks on the whites and the burning that their slaves might shuddered at the possibility plantation-owners New England merimitate the example of those in Saint-Domingue. and molasses would be cut chants worried that supplies of sugar, coffee, also but shrewd Yankee traders recognized off, disrupting their business, . sell and other supplies happy to arms, gunpowder, slave had reached the late September 1791, news of the uprising the By published dramatic reports of United States, where newspapers of their properties. Southern attacks on the whites and the burning that their slaves might shuddered at the possibility plantation-owners New England merimitate the example of those in Saint-Domingue. and molasses would be cut chants worried that supplies of sugar, coffee, also but shrewd Yankee traders recognized off, disrupting their business, --- Page 56 --- The Uprisings, 1791-1793 47 for them. A shipper in Boston that the crisis provided opportunities Le since "in all probability urged a friend to rush a cargo of flour to Cap, the use of their will take all they can lay their hands on for government American traders continued to do troops. >l1 Throughout the period, stream of news bringing back a steady business with Saint-Domingue, America, reports of the Saintthere. In South about developments slaveowners, but, like North American merDomingue uprising alarmed for profit. Unable to sell black captives chants, they also saw opportunities took them to other markets, such as slave traders in Saint-Domingue, boom fueled by slave labor that lasted Brazil, setting off an economic through the 1790s. reached France at the end When the first reports of the slave uprising provoked stormy October 1791, two months after its outbreak, they of in which the white colonists had had debates. The National Assembly, of October with a had been replaced at the beginning strong support, Brissot and other Assembly in which Jacques-Pierre new Legislative of the Friends of the Blacks, the French abolimembers of the Society roles. Under the new constitution of tionist movement, played leading reduced. His position was 1791, Louis XVI's powers were considerably he had made an unsuccessful further weakened because, in June 1791, Assembly's leaders attempt to flee the kingdom; although the National of the him from the throne, the supporters had decided not to remove had lost all trust in him. The news pro-revolutionary Jacobin movement as suspicious: was it a of the slave uprising struck many of the Jacobins the ocean and trick to give the king a chance to send troops across the other side of the even establish a refuge for himself on perhaps extremists openly supported the slaves'bid Atlantic? Although only a few insisted that the white colonists for freedom, Brissot and his supporters of color as a condition be required to grant equal rights to the free men linked to the assistance. Brissot, who was closely for receiving military Julien Raimond, argued that only a free men of color's representative peopleins Saint-Domingue complete union betweenthet two groupsoffreey first of 6,000 could defeat the slave uprising. Although a Brissot contingent and his party had been sent to the colony in early 1792, of troops further assistance until the question succeeded in holding up any rights for the free men of color was resolved. finally its way in March After months of deadlock, Brissot's group got For difalliance with the king. very 1792, when they made a surprising both wanted to declare war ferent reasons, Louis XVI and Brissot's party two groupsoffreey first of 6,000 could defeat the slave uprising. Although a Brissot contingent and his party had been sent to the colony in early 1792, of troops further assistance until the question succeeded in holding up any rights for the free men of color was resolved. finally its way in March After months of deadlock, Brissot's group got For difalliance with the king. very 1792, when they made a surprising both wanted to declare war ferent reasons, Louis XVI and Brissot's party --- Page 57 --- The Uprisings, 1791-1793 rival, Austria. The king thought that if the against France's European the effects of the revolution, was French army, badly disorganized by Brissot, on the other defeated, his absolute powers would be restored. fervor in the that the war would set off a wave of patriotic hand, thought revolution's enemies. Louis XVI country that would overwhelm the favored by Brissot to launch agreed to appoint a new cabinet of ministers of a new As of the deal, Brissot also insisted on approval the war. part rights to all the free people of color law granting full civil and political 1792, this law also French colonies. Signed by the king on 4 April in the of additional 6,000 troops to Saintprovided for the dispatch an Civil Commission whose Domingue, under the supervision of a new first set of commiswere to be much greater than those of the Second powers in 1791. The two dominant members of this sioners appointed Sonthonax, were Commission, Étienne Polverel and Léger-Félicité Civil both written newspaper articles denouncing Jacobin activists who had ordered them to defeat the slavery. Although their official instructions had little sympathy for the black insurrection in Saint-Domingue, they in the colony. white plantation-owners The Goals of the Black Insurgents and the military expedition accomWhile the new civil commissioners across the Atlantic - they them were slowly making their way panying until September 1792 - the black would not reach Saint-Domingue and the free men of color in the West insurgents in the North Province The failure of the and South Provinces were pursuing their own goals. left the forces comwith the whites at the end of 1791 peace negotiations and Biassou in control of the devastated sugarmanded by Jean-François Plain and the mountains south and east growing region of the Northern also held positions in the ofit, along the Spanish border. The insurgents a blackIn these areas they began to organize hills west of Cap Français. established a network of camps in the regions dominated society. They for each of them, thus creating an they held and appointed commanders become the nucleus of a elite of military officers who would eventually who thus class. Among these commanders was Toussaint, new governing base of his own. Biassou built an imposing headquaracquired a power southern of the Northern Plain; ters for himself at his base on the edge Although Biassou and colonist described it as a "royal palace" one white to organize hills west of Cap Français. established a network of camps in the regions dominated society. They for each of them, thus creating an they held and appointed commanders become the nucleus of a elite of military officers who would eventually who thus class. Among these commanders was Toussaint, new governing base of his own. Biassou built an imposing headquaracquired a power southern of the Northern Plain; ters for himself at his base on the edge Although Biassou and colonist described it as a "royal palace" one white --- Page 58 --- The Uprisings, 1791-1793 49 Jean-François could not write, they dictated letters colored secretaries. Theyissued to white or free in the territories they legal documents, such as passes for travel controlled, set up military prisoners, and held periodic councils tribunals to sentence While their leaders laid the to discuss policy. commanders, basis of a society dominated by ordinary blacks appropriated land from military plantations to grow their own food, the destroyed the rural peasantrythat makes beginning the process of creating to this day. From the upt the majority ofthe Haitian population outset, the goals of the black mass of the population werein conflict. The leadership and the in continuing to perform the former slaves had no interest disciplined labor sugar or coffee, nor did they care about the necessary for growing system. The new ruling class, however, survival of the plantation itself for the former would have liked to substitute cash crops. This would plantation-owners have and continue the production of also needed enabled them to enrich themselves, but resources to pay for weapons and they their troops, which they had to ammunition to supply In order to pay for these purchase from Spanish Santo Domingo. selling black prisoners of supplies, Jean-François and Biassou resorted to war and women and children who participate in the army to the could not engage in this kind of slave Spanish as slaves. Their willingness to black rulers in Africa sold trading, similar to the arrangements by which leaders had captives to the whites, indicates not yet come to see their that these principle of movement as a revolt slavery, as opposed to a against the who were participating movement for the benefit of those serve under Biassou's directly in it. Toussaint, while he continued to kind command, was notable for not engaging in this lofexchange, however. Having been a free man and having had more before therevolution, have had a exposure to white debates about slavery, he stronger commitment to the elimination of may Unlike revolutionary the institution. nies and in France, the movements in Britain's North American cololargely by illiterate slaves uprising who in Saint-Domingue was carried out statements did not issue manifestoes or other stating their goals. It is therefore difficult public they had been influenced to know whether Declaration of the by the abstract principles of the French have quoted Rights ofMan. A number of historians in recent from a document published in France in years identified as a letter from Jean-François, January 1793, named Belair, that does refer Biassou, and a third black leader powerful explicitly to the Declaration and makes argument for the equality of all people: a "Being all children of out statements did not issue manifestoes or other stating their goals. It is therefore difficult public they had been influenced to know whether Declaration of the by the abstract principles of the French have quoted Rights ofMan. A number of historians in recent from a document published in France in years identified as a letter from Jean-François, January 1793, named Belair, that does refer Biassou, and a third black leader powerful explicitly to the Declaration and makes argument for the equality of all people: a "Being all children of --- Page 59 --- The Uprisings, 1791-1793 created in the same image we are therefore your equals accordone father nature to diversify the colors of ing to natural right and if it has pleased to be it is no crime to be black or any advantage the human species that this "letter of white." Other historians have pointed out, however, document: Biassou and Belair" may not be an authentic Jean-François, itself and it was it is not mentioned in any source from Saint-Domingue officer in France who was eager published by a royalist colonial military the slave uprising. Despite that French abolitionists had inspired to prove contains, the letter also ends with some less the radical language it would recognize the blacks' freedom, extreme proposals: if the whites in the insurrection, and grant amnesty to those who had participated of the the guarantee the terms agreement, have the Spanish government return to their plantations and resume insurgents, for their part, would their work, in exchange for a fixed salary." the views of the black Whether or not this letter actually represents continued to look to the French their actions show that they insurgents, revolutionary movement, as their most king, rather than to the French white military comlikely source of support. The counterevolutionary blacks had no reason to think mander Cambefort pointed out that the to abolish revolutionaries, who had taken no measures that the French Cambefort remarked, in Saint-Domingue, slavery, were on their side.As [the insurrection] "the civil and military authorities who were fighting 13 The blacks were also the colors" of the revolution." wore patriotic to religion. Even if their offended by the French renclutionarie'hostiltyt the black population real faith was in vodou rather than Catholicism, kind of religious belief. could not easily imagine a society without some stood up for our wrote that "I have always In August 1792, Jean-François the Jacobin leaders in Paris God and the king. >14 On 10 August 1792, members of the population, mobilized the city's sans-culottes, the poorer established the year before. and overthrew the constitutional monarchy in France, Biassou When he learned that Louis XVI had been imprisoned to "maintain to proclaim himself viceroy, promising held a ceremony from the king our master, whose rights order while awaiting instructions the Lord, until it pleases him to send to with the help of I hope support, >>15 us his own established laws." Province were establishing their While the insurgents in the North political ideolwith an elite of black leaders and a distinctive own society, color in the West and South Provinces were gaining ogy, the men of one of the members of as well. With the support of Saint-Léger, power imprisoned to "maintain to proclaim himself viceroy, promising held a ceremony from the king our master, whose rights order while awaiting instructions the Lord, until it pleases him to send to with the help of I hope support, >>15 us his own established laws." Province were establishing their While the insurgents in the North political ideolwith an elite of black leaders and a distinctive own society, color in the West and South Provinces were gaining ogy, the men of one of the members of as well. With the support of Saint-Léger, power --- Page 60 --- The Uprisings, 1791-1793 51 truce was re-established in Port-authe First Civil Commission, a shaky free men of color helped put of 1792, and the Prince at the beginning figure who called violent slave uprising led by a charismatic down a in the area around Léogane, another himself "Romaine the prophetess" considered Romaine's claim to be main city in the area. French officials reflect vodou "ridiculous?" but the story may possessed by a female spirit well be seized by divinities beliefs, according to which individuals may in the rich Croix-desof the opposite sex.' 16 North of Port-au-Prince, another black leader, Bouquets plain, the free men of color allied with the slave insurrections to intimidate Hyacinthe, who was able to organize get out of hand. In whites in the area without letting these movements Pinchinat, renewed their 1792 the free men of color, led by Pierre April white plantation-owners in the west by alliance with the conservative and Union in the port city of Saint-Marc. forming the Council of Peace even by the whites who Pinchinat, whose political skills were recognized mixed-race council into a powmost violently opposed him, turned the which continued to meet erful rival to the all-white Colonial Assembly, either to the free men of in Cap Français and to resist any concessions slaves. color or to the insurgent Assembly's decree of 4 April 1792 When news ofthe French Legislative however, the Colonial at the end of May 1792, reached Saint-Domingue troops to fight the slave Assembly, recognizing the need for metropolitan with the its diehard opposition to equality insurrection, had to abandon continued to nurset their free men of color.Although many whites privately clash in Cap Français in midhatred for the free men of color, as a violent showed, the white unleashed a civil war in the city August that nearly with them. Secretly, leadership proclaimed its readiness to accept equality in France would whites hoped that the revolutionary government many to their rivals would be repealed. soon collapse and that the rights granted Blanchelande was determined to In the meantime, however, Governor to the Council of Peace and enforce the new law. He gave his endorsement without his permission, and Union, even though it had been formed for white blanc leaders who had continued to agitate arrested the petit appeared to be on the verge of becoming the supremacy. Saint-Domingue distinctions between free people of diffirst New World society in which Even if this reform was would be abolished. ferent racial backgrounds rather than to abolish it, the meant to strengthen the system of slavery with implications that of racial equality was a momentous step acceptance affected all the societies in the Americas. law. He gave his endorsement without his permission, and Union, even though it had been formed for white blanc leaders who had continued to agitate arrested the petit appeared to be on the verge of becoming the supremacy. Saint-Domingue distinctions between free people of diffirst New World society in which Even if this reform was would be abolished. ferent racial backgrounds rather than to abolish it, the meant to strengthen the system of slavery with implications that of racial equality was a momentous step acceptance affected all the societies in the Americas. --- Page 61 --- The Uprisings, 1791-1793 the decree of 4 April 1792, however, Even as he moved to implement Blanchelande continued to try to end the slave uprising. Blanchelande the black insurgent movement in had decided not to challenge powerful from France, but at the beginning the north until more troops arrived smaller of insurgents 1792 he launched an attack on a group of August established a "republic" at Platons, in the who had freed themselves and of Cayes. The French troops mountains near the South Province's capital into the rugged terrain, had to separate into several columns to penetrate them. It was the the were able to ambush and destroy and insurgents forces had suffered since the start ofthe fightworst military defeat white Blanchelande had to sail back ing in the colony. Crushed and humiliated, civil commissioners to wait for the arrival of the new to Cap Français them. Sent back to France and accused and the fresh forces accompanying the Council of Peace and of having exceeded his authority by endorsing the slave insurrecUnion and of mismanaging the military effort against to became the first prominent victim condemned tion, Blanchelande Tribunal the radical French revolutiondeath by the new Revolutionary aries set up in April 1793. The Second Civil Commission Arrives Second Civil Commission landed in Cap When the members of the thus found a colony in disarray. Français on 20 September 1792 they the decree of 4 April 1792 by Their official instructions were to enforce with new institutions in Saint-Domingue replacing the all-white political of color were both represented, and bodies in which whites and free men In addition, they for colonial autonomy. to put an end to any agitation At the ceremony held to told to defeat the slave uprising. were explicitly civil commissioners publicly swore not to welcome them in Le Cap, the Soon after they the institution of slavery. do anything to undermine French constitutional learned that the shaky arrived, the commissioners them had been overthrown and replaced monarchy that had appointed that France regime whose leaders announced by a radical revolutionary the principles of"liberty and equality" would henceforth be governed by of the French Determined to avoid a split with the white populations the victorious Jacobin revolutionaries quickly gave colonies, however, did not apply to France's overseas terassurances that this proclamation followed their the civil commissioners ritories. In Saint-Domingue, the institution of slavery. do anything to undermine French constitutional learned that the shaky arrived, the commissioners them had been overthrown and replaced monarchy that had appointed that France regime whose leaders announced by a radical revolutionary the principles of"liberty and equality" would henceforth be governed by of the French Determined to avoid a split with the white populations the victorious Jacobin revolutionaries quickly gave colonies, however, did not apply to France's overseas terassurances that this proclamation followed their the civil commissioners ritories. In Saint-Domingue, --- Page 62 --- The Uprisings, 1791-1793 53 dissolved the all-white Colonial Assembly, replacing it instructions and of equal numbers of whites and with an Interim Commission composed the Colonial of color. The white members, chosen by outgoing free men vehement defenders of slavery. Assembly, included some of the most in transformed into a democratic republic While France itself was being have full political rights, the which all men but not women - would continued. The fact that the struggle to defend slavery in the colonies their loyalty continued to proclaim black insurgents in Saint-Domingue them as dangerous to the king allowed the slaveowners to portray cnuntererolutionaries arrived civil commissioners were more preoccuInitially, the newly of white counterrervolution in pied with what they saw as the peril black insurrection. On 19 Saint-Domingue than with the problem of the white 'patriots," supported October 1792, a coalition of self-proclaimed had been sent from France soldiers who by many of the revolutionary local version of the Paris republican and by the free men of color, staged a the civil commisof 10 August 1792 in Cap Français, forcing and uprising the officers of the local military garrison sioners to arrest and deport by the king. Having civil officials who had been appointed the remaining white > began to resist the implementaachieved this victory, the "patriots' determined of the civil comtion of the law of 4 April 1792. The most several Sonthonax, decided to confront them by appointing missioners, du Cap, the permanent army unit free colored officers to the Régiment another violent stationed in the city. In response, the city's whites staged of color who Sonthonax and the armed free men uprising, attacking overwhelmed them, the free colored supported him. When the whites threatening to allow the seized one of the forts defending the city, The troops from the countryside to breach its defenses. armed black insurgents Pierre Pinchinat, negotiated a settlement leader of the free men of color, Sonthonax ordered the arrest with the free colored soldiers; in return, white agitators in the to France of the most prominent and deportation of 2 December 1792, Sonthonax made city. In the wake of this uprising of the free men of color, allowing a firm alliance with the movement of militiamen with their own them to form so-called "free companies" Meanwhile, outside the regular army chain of command. officers, Polverel, sent to the West Province, also encounSonthonax's colleague white Like Sonthonax, vehement from the population. tered opposition The French Republic now he turned to the free men of color for support. the colony. seemed committed to allowing that group to dominate 2, Sonthonax made city. In the wake of this uprising of the free men of color, allowing a firm alliance with the movement of militiamen with their own them to form so-called "free companies" Meanwhile, outside the regular army chain of command. officers, Polverel, sent to the West Province, also encounSonthonax's colleague white Like Sonthonax, vehement from the population. tered opposition The French Republic now he turned to the free men of color for support. the colony. seemed committed to allowing that group to dominate --- Page 63 --- The Uprisings, 1791-1793 of the civil commissioners and the free people The alliance between campaign against the black color went along with a renewed military thousands of the troops insurrection. Since their arrival in September, that always claimed from France had fallen sick from the tropical diseases and Polverel were toll on new arrivals from Europe; Sonthonax a heavy healthy before their forces became eager to deploy those who remained 1793 they launched major camtoo weak to be of any use. In January colony. In the South Province, against the rebels at both ends ofthe paigns Blanchelande's whosef ightershaddestroyedi thetiakrompabicoiPaser forced to abandon their stronghold. army was overrun and its defenders officer who would eventually In the north, Étienne Laveaux, a patriotic of headdrove Biassou out his impressive become the colony's governor, to flee into the mounquarters and compelled him and Jean-François of blacks who had been living tains along the Spanish border. Thousands back under white control, and in freedom for a year and a half fell since the who had been cooped up in Cap Français plantation-owners began making plans to return to their properties. start ofthe insurrection had found themselves unexMonths later, after Sonthonax and Polverel slaves, the black general pectedly compelled to offer freedom to the him and his Louverture had still not forgiven them for chasing Toussaint offensive. *You had us pursued soldiers out of his camp in the January 1793. 17 ferocious beasts," he wrote to Sonthonax in August like the commissioners in January 1793 were The offensives launched by soon realized blow to the slave insurrection, but the commissioners a to defeat the movement. After a that their resources were not sufficient General Laveaux's troops were few weeks of fighting in the mountains, were celebrating their efforts, and even as they too exhausted to continue Polverel learned that they were about to their victories, Sonthonax and 1793, Britain and Spain face a new threat. At the beginning of February was revolutionary France, and Saint-Domingue joined the war against colonies of Jamaica and menaced with attacks from the neighboring now of the Saint-Domingue Santo Domingo. În London, representatives to help the colonists signed a secret treaty with the British, promising would the colony in exchange for assurances that slavery latter occupy to the threat of invasion, the commisbe maintained there. In response the blacks and focused sioners dropped their military campaign against resistance to their decrees the last centers of white instead on crushing cause with France's foreign before the slaveowners could make common extremists out of the cities of enemies. In April 1793, they drove white now of the Saint-Domingue Santo Domingo. În London, representatives to help the colonists signed a secret treaty with the British, promising would the colony in exchange for assurances that slavery latter occupy to the threat of invasion, the commisbe maintained there. In response the blacks and focused sioners dropped their military campaign against resistance to their decrees the last centers of white instead on crushing cause with France's foreign before the slaveowners could make common extremists out of the cities of enemies. In April 1793, they drove white --- Page 64 --- The Uprisings, 1791-1793 55 leaving the white stronghold in the Grande Port-au-Prince and Jacmel, Anse as the last bastion of opposition to their authority. had to face the Anxious to end the slave insurrection before they Sonthonax and attacks from the Spanish and the British, threatened the instructions they had Polverel were still unwilling to go beyond Instead, the comreceived from France by proclaiming emancipation. with more modest missioners tried to win the slave population over all the concessions. On 5 May 1793, they issued a decree reinstating Louis XIV Code noir originally issued by provisions of the century-old slaves some protections in 1685. The clauses in the Code noir that gave Sonthonax and Polverel from their masters had always been ignored, but To communicate insisted that they would now be carefully enforced. translated into Creole to the blacks, they had the Code noir their message read aloud on all plantations, SO that the slaves and ordered that it be of the Code noir was would know their rights. Although the reissuing slavetoward the abolition of slavery, the colony's certainly not a step action as a threat to their power: holders rightly saw the commissioners' under the control of slaves would now know that they were not totally that their gesture Sonthonax and Polverel were optimistic their owners. They did succeed in putting down a slave would end the slave rebellion. to their report to the new uprising near Port-au-Prince. According when the blacks heard about French assembly, the National Convention, long live the 1793 decree, "they cried 'Long live the Republic, the 5 May fathers won't allow anyone to cut off our ears civil commissioners. Our for our us alive or to throw us in ovens having displeased or to bury masters."is commissioners were trying to reach out to the While the French civil insurrection in the North Province slave population, the leaders of the between France and advantage of the declaration of war were taking The Spanish authorities in Santo Spain to strengthen their position. the since the start Domingo had been giving covert support to insurgents alliance with Jeanof the revolt. Now they were ready to make an open if agreed and freedom to their men they François and Biassou promise Sonthonax and Polverel still to fight under the Spanish flag. Whereas the property of white hesitated to free slaves who were, legally speaking, the free citizens and, often, of the commissioners' allies among French such Furthermore, the of color, the Spanish had no qualms. people whose king was part ofthe same Bourbon family Spaniards were royalists devout Catholics whose respect as the French monarch, and they were make an open if agreed and freedom to their men they François and Biassou promise Sonthonax and Polverel still to fight under the Spanish flag. Whereas the property of white hesitated to free slaves who were, legally speaking, the free citizens and, often, of the commissioners' allies among French such Furthermore, the of color, the Spanish had no qualms. people whose king was part ofthe same Bourbon family Spaniards were royalists devout Catholics whose respect as the French monarch, and they were --- Page 65 --- The Uprisings, 1791-1793 leaders. A Spanish priest, Father for religion was shared by the insurgent with the main intermediaries in the negotiations Vasquez, was one of the them that God was on their side. blacks, writing regularly to assure The Crisis of 20 June 1793 the recalcitrant whites their campaign against As they were concluding 1793, Sonthonax and Polverel in the West and South Provinces in May in the north of the received surprising news from Cap Français, suddenly General François-Thomas colony. On 7 May 1793, a new governor, Galbaud, one of the heroes of Galbaud, arrived in the colony's main city. invasion in French defense against the Austro-Prussian the patriotic commander who had accom1792, had been sent to replace the elderly 1792 and commissioners when they arrived in September panied the France soon afterward. Despite his revoluwhom they had sent back to in Saint-l Domingue credentials, Galbaud owned slave plantations tionary assumed that he would oppose any concessions and the commissioners ordered him not to take any they made to the insurgents. They promptly to meet with him, but action before they could return to Cap Français immediately Galbaud, eagerly welcomed by the local white population, the free his own ideas. Sonthonax's allies among began implementing letters, telling him that their position people of color wrote him urgent did not return at once and confront was in jeopardy ifthe commissioners resented the fact that Galbaud's the general; among other things, they color in her home. Among the wife refused to receive free women of were the that welcomed Galbaud most enthusiastically groups in the city the ships in Cap Français harbor. Ever hundreds of French sailors on had been forbidden to sail since the declaration of war with Britain, they The commissionfor fear of being intercepted by the British. for France, into a large convoy, to be protected ers had ordered the ships to assemble while the convoy of warships, but months had passed by a squadron and the sailors, eager to go home, had waited for the order to set sail, Imbued with racial prejurestless and resentful. become increasingly into fights with free men of color when dices, the sailors frequently got came ashore to drink and look for women. they Sonthonax and Polverel On 10 June 1793, the civil commissioners Galbaud, accusing him of and confronted returned to Cap Français Galbaud their authority. Despite his military reputation, undermining ships, but months had passed by a squadron and the sailors, eager to go home, had waited for the order to set sail, Imbued with racial prejurestless and resentful. become increasingly into fights with free men of color when dices, the sailors frequently got came ashore to drink and look for women. they Sonthonax and Polverel On 10 June 1793, the civil commissioners Galbaud, accusing him of and confronted returned to Cap Français Galbaud their authority. Despite his military reputation, undermining --- Page 66 --- The Uprisings, 1791-1793 57 and timid man; rather than arguing with the commissioners, was a weak be sent back to France. The commissioners put he agreed to let himself harbor. Their supporters among him on board one ofthe warships in the hold their tongues while of color, who had had to the free population celebrated the commissioners' Galbaud had been in charge of the city, of 20 June 1793, triumph, further irritating the sailors. On the morning claimed to have been following several incidents in which naval officers boiled over. of color in the city's streets, the fleet's anger insulted by men lead them in an assault on the city. The sailors persuaded Galbaud to Polverel and take them back to Their plan was to seize Sonthonax and would accuse them of abusing France, where Galbaud and the sailors the general and the On the afternoon of 20 June 1793, their authority. succeeded in storming the commissionsailors came ashore and nearly were defended by armed free Sonthonax and Polverel ers' headquarters. sailors back. Nevertheless, men of color, who drove the disorganized and to make a Galbaud's forces took over the city's arsenal prepared renewed attack on the following morning. Proclamation The First Emancipation and their free colored supporters realized that they The commissioners Galbaud and the sailors could deploy risked being overwhelmed once arsenal. On the night of 20 June the cannon they had captured at the decided to take a momentous 1793, Sonthonax and Polverel therefore black slaves in the city, who had SO step: they called on the thousands of their side, them far remained neutral in the conflict, to join promising did SO. This offer fell well short of an emancipation their freedom ifthey military age, and slaves who it applied only to men of war in the proclamation: to remain in the army as long as the responded had to agree the black insurgency. Unlike colony continued and even to fight against occasions on which one faction or another in Saint-Domingue previous for them, however, the commissioners' appeal had armed slaves to fight who wanted to take advantage of it. was extended to any eligible man of 21 June Galbaud's forces renewed their assault on the morning When had to flee the city and set up a camp in the 1793, the commissioners made contact with some of nearby village of Haut du Cap. There they the city. On 22 insurgent bands in the hills surrounding the organized Pierrot and Macaya, arrived with their June 1793 two black commanders, omingue previous for them, however, the commissioners' appeal had armed slaves to fight who wanted to take advantage of it. was extended to any eligible man of 21 June Galbaud's forces renewed their assault on the morning When had to flee the city and set up a camp in the 1793, the commissioners made contact with some of nearby village of Haut du Cap. There they the city. On 22 insurgent bands in the hills surrounding the organized Pierrot and Macaya, arrived with their June 1793 two black commanders, --- Page 67 --- 58 The Uprisings, 1791-1793 forces, numbering around 2,000 men. The into their army, telling them that commissioners swore them of republican France, and they were now free men and citizens sent them into the city to drive back supporters. Galbaud's When the commissioners fled the Galbaud's victory had seemed city on the morning of 21 June, wave of panic had seized the assured. Just at that moment, however, a general and his followers. no longer faced any organized Even though they that thousands of blacks opposition insidet the city, 'everyone yelled were coming from were going to exterminate all of Haut-du-Cap and that they general himself us," one eyewitness recalled. 19 ran to the waterfront and threw The to reach a passing boat. Seeing the himself into the harbor the city's civilian general and the sailors seized by fear, population abandoned their homes joined in the scramble for and property and the safety on the ships in the harbor. newly enrolled black soldiers entered By the time the cityhad dissolved into chaos. Le Cap on the following day, to loot the White sailors and black slaves empty houses and stores, and fire, competed crowded city, began to spread, always a danger in the 23 June, the entire increasing the disorder. By the of city was in flames, and the captains in the evening ships overloaded with refugees, decided harbor, their orders and set sail as fast as to ignore the commissioners' and Polverel found they could. To their own surprise, Sonthonax which themselves back in power, at the head of an newly freed "citizens of 20 June" outnumbered army in color who had been their main the free men of supporters until then. The events Français were a major turning point in the in Cap The city had been a struggle in Saint-Domingue. proud symbol of and its destruction signaled the European civilization in the colony, of Cap end of white colonial rule. The Français, which cost the lives of at least burning was the worst episode of urban 3,000 people of all races, Americas. The decision violence in the entire history of the by Sonthonax and Polverel to blacks who would join their forces marked offer freedom to tives of France's the first time that representaSonthonax revolutionary government had disavowed and Polverel had thought that the limited slavery. cipation they made during the crisis of 20 offer of emanblack insurgents who had been June 1793 would bring the 1791 over to the French side. fighting for their freedom since August blacks had ideas of their They quickly learned, however, that the who had own. Macaya, one of the two come to the commissioners' aid insurgent leaders them that he would not disobey his during the crisis in Le Cap, told superiors, Jean-François and Biassou, disavowed and Polverel had thought that the limited slavery. cipation they made during the crisis of 20 offer of emanblack insurgents who had been June 1793 would bring the 1791 over to the French side. fighting for their freedom since August blacks had ideas of their They quickly learned, however, that the who had own. Macaya, one of the two come to the commissioners' aid insurgent leaders them that he would not disobey his during the crisis in Le Cap, told superiors, Jean-François and Biassou, --- Page 68 --- The Uprisings, 1791-1793 59 the French and Spanish should make an agreeand that, in his opinion, by the local French commander, ment to work together. Contacted to now alongside their Toussaint replied that his men, "having fought up all shed the last drop of brothers to uphold the right of the king will have promised their blood to defend the Bourbons to whom they Biassou briefly Jean-François and unswerving loyalty to the death. French, but the Spanish soon considered switching their allegiance to the brink of defeat by them that revolutionary France was on the solpersuaded opposing it. The black generals' the coalition of European powers French invitation.1 Meanwhile, theirleadersi in rejecting the diers followed had to give in to black pressure to broaden in Le Cap, the commissioners 1793, they agreed to free the wives their emancipation offer. On 11 July they used the and children of black men who joined the army, although blacks who conto insist that this offer would apply only to occasion to French law. The commissioners' appeals tracted marriages according and to stop looting to the blacks to return to work on the plantations black was clearindications that the population the ruins of the city were whites. When an American merto follow orders from no longer willing and commented that one of chant visited Cap Français in early August slave" to restore his prophis surviving white friends was "working like a as warned him "not to use the word slave on any occasion, erty, the man >21 it might cost me my life." realized that nothing short of By the end of August 1793, Sonthonax would give him any chance of of emancipation a general proclamation the blacks in the North Province. On 29 August winning support from announcing that the principles of 1793, he finally took the decisive step, would now be applied in French Declaration of the Rights of Man the and that the slaves were now free. Sonthonax's proclaSaint-Domingue for the first time, slavery was mation was a true historical turning point: where it had been the basis of an abolished in a part of the Americas principle, Sonthonax Although he was opposed to slaveryin entire society. sO quickly. He was forced to had not planned to take such a radical step situation because of the need for black support in the unanticipated act crisis of June 1793 in Cap Français. Still hoping to preserve created by the depended, however, the plantation system on which France's prosperity set of regulations Sonthonax coupled his proclamation with an elaborate and conthe former slaves to remain on their plantations that required duties. His colleague Polverel, who had tinue to perform their regular before Sonthonax issued his returned to the West Province a few weeks forced to had not planned to take such a radical step situation because of the need for black support in the unanticipated act crisis of June 1793 in Cap Français. Still hoping to preserve created by the depended, however, the plantation system on which France's prosperity set of regulations Sonthonax coupled his proclamation with an elaborate and conthe former slaves to remain on their plantations that required duties. His colleague Polverel, who had tinue to perform their regular before Sonthonax issued his returned to the West Province a few weeks --- Page 69 --- The Uprisings, 1791-1793 that his colleague had acted SO hastily. proclamation, was unhappy where the free men of color had considerable Finding himself in an area about maintaining a workinfluence, Polverel had to take their concerns he soon issued his their into account. Nevertheless, force on properties which included an even more elaboproclamation, own emancipation former slaves' freedom. rate set of restrictions on the that their emancipation procSonthonax and Polverel had assumed over to their lamations would bring the mass of the black population had discovered that even these radical measures side, but they quickly The black generals were still not prenot convinced many of the blacks. who persuaded them that pared to break their alliance with the Spanish, French government promises made in the name of the revolutionary bound to win the war of little value, since Spain and its allies were were 1793, the day on which Sonthonax issued his in Europe. On 29 August wrote a letter in which he used general emancipation decree, Toussaint for the first time, and in which he the name "Toussaint Louverture" for "liberty and equality" claimed that he, like the French, was fighting that the French, however, he told his correspondents Rather than joining down," and he reas- "deceivers who only want to bring you they were serted his loyalty to the Spanish." army often took blacks who were not part of the insurgent Ordinary and Polverel's proclamation to desert plantaadvantage of Sonthonax but they were unwilling to submit tions that had continued to function, labor the civil commissioners themselves to the system of controlled the create. To make the new arrangements more palatable, wanted to black commandeurs as conducteurs, and officommissioners relabeled the slaves cultivateurs: the new terms were cial documents called the former nature of labor arrangements on supposed to emphasize the consensual as a form of disciWhipping was no longer permitted the plantations. still to perform the same tasks pline, but the cultivateurs were expected to receive a share of the had under slavery; in exchange, they were they Polverel attempted to establish a system profits from the plantations. be made of the plantaunder which the cultivateurs would part-owners he found that they often for continuing to work, but tions in exchange time for themselves, even at the price of a opted instead for more free to the commissioners' lower income. 23 Women were particularly opposed for men, on which gave them only two-thirds of the wages regulations, natural inequality! between women the grounds, as Polverel put it, of"the the time they take off and men, their constant or periodic infirmities, or from the plantations. be made of the plantaunder which the cultivateurs would part-owners he found that they often for continuing to work, but tions in exchange time for themselves, even at the price of a opted instead for more free to the commissioners' lower income. 23 Women were particularly opposed for men, on which gave them only two-thirds of the wages regulations, natural inequality! between women the grounds, as Polverel put it, of"the the time they take off and men, their constant or periodic infirmities, or --- Page 70 --- The Uprisings, 1791-1793 61 birth, and feed their children2" They when they are pregnant, give more time off to resisted by refusing to work at night and demanding care for their children. and Polverel had of implementing their Any chance that Sonthonax to at least part of the abolition plans depended on their ability keep they suffered control. Throughout the fall of 1793 colony under French 1793, white colonists allowed one setback after another. In September and the naval base British forces to land in the southern port of Jérémie learned Soon afterward, the two commissioners of Môle Saint-Nicolas. Convention had expelled their patron Brissot that the French National 1793 the deputies had voted to and his supporters, and that on 16 July them on trial. This Sonthonax and Polverel themselves and put recall whether the French government would recogaction made it uncertain had issued. Just before the news nize the abolition decrees the two men Sonthonax French Convention's vote reached Saint-Domingue, of the the North Province in had arranged the election of deputies to represent consisting of equal the National Convention. A "tricolor" delegation, to Paris to of whites, blacks, and men of mixed race was sent numbers Sonthonax had taken in the colony. Fearing defend the radical measures would be overrun by that if they abandoned their posts Saint-Domingue decided to continue their work France's enemies, Sonthonax and Polverel the recall decree, but in official arrived to deliver until a government of color in Saint-Marc, a key city in the November 1793 the free men over to the British. By this West Province, reacted to the news by going leaving General had retreated from the North Province, time, Sonthonax of it that had not been occupied by the Laveaux in control of the parts had taken refuge on a plantaSpanish and their black allies, and Polverel setbacks, however, the tion in the South Province. In spite of all these later, they were did not give up hope. Sooner or two commissioners would realize that it was the French, not the Spanish convinced, thel blacks committed to giving them freedom, and and the British, who were truly the tide would turn in their favor. retreated from the North Province, time, Sonthonax of it that had not been occupied by the Laveaux in control of the parts had taken refuge on a plantaSpanish and their black allies, and Polverel setbacks, however, the tion in the South Province. In spite of all these later, they were did not give up hope. Sooner or two commissioners would realize that it was the French, not the Spanish convinced, thel blacks committed to giving them freedom, and and the British, who were truly the tide would turn in their favor. --- Page 71 --- Republican Emancipation in Saint-Domingue, 1793-1798 The dramatic events of the two years from the beginning of the insurrections of black slaves and free people of color in August 1791 to the French civil commissioner Sonthonax's proclamation of general emancipation in August 1793 constituted a genuine revolution. In 1791 Saint-Domingue had been the wealthiest and most exploitative of the New World's slave societies; by 1793 the slave system in the island lay in ruins, and the black population were all legally free. In 1791 whites had monopolized political and military power in the colony; two years later, much oft the white population had fled the island, while free men of color had risen to top positions in the French army and held a large share of political power. At the same time, Saint-Domingue had become a battlefield in the war between revolutionary France and its European enemies, a conflict whose outcome hung in the balance as the year 1793 drew to a close. No one knew whether the spectacular changes in the colony were laying the basis for a new, racially egalitarian society or whether Saint-Domingue was doomed to be consumed by chaos and violence. A Republican Colony of Free Men Between 1793 and 1798, the violence in Saint-Domingue gradually subsided and a new society, from which slavery had been officially banished and in which people of all colors enjoyed the same legal rights, started to take shape. An army largely composed of soldiers of African descent, A Concise History of the Haitian Revolution, First Edition. Jeremy D. Popkin. @ 2012 Jeremy D. Popkin. Published 2012 by Blackwell Publishing Ltd. --- Page 72 --- Republican Emancipation in Saint-Domingue, 1793-1798 Môle Port-de-Paix Saint-Nicolas Area occupied Çap Français by the Spanish & Area occupied Fort 2S8 by the British (Fort-Liberté) Dauphin Gonaives, Artibonite River/ Saint-Marc Mirebalais Jérémie A Port-au-Prince (Port-Républicain) SANTO DOMINGO (SPANISH COLONY) Léogane D Ve Jacmel Cayes & - Map3 Saint-Domingue, May 1794. Source: Adapted from J. C. Dorsainvil (SP), Manuel d'histoire d'Haiti (Port-auPrince: H. Deschamps, 1958), p. 84. fighting under the French colors, defeated the foes the forces of the black insurrection, the Spanish and the British - who had nearly overrun the colony in 1793. Out of the midst of the power struggles in the island, a powerful personality - Toussaint Louverture emerged, using his military and political talents to make himself the ruler of most of the colony. France's government appeared to accept the idea that its most valuable overseas territory would be governed by a black ex-slave as part of a republican empire from which racial distinctions had been banished. Other governments, particularly the British and the Americans, initially fearful that the upheavals in Saint-Domingue would spread to their territories, began to adjust to the new situation and even envisage how they might turn it to their advantage in their own struggles with republican France. While the period of"republican emancipation" from 1793 to 1798 suggested the possibility of a peaceful outcome to the struggles that had accept the idea that its most valuable overseas territory would be governed by a black ex-slave as part of a republican empire from which racial distinctions had been banished. Other governments, particularly the British and the Americans, initially fearful that the upheavals in Saint-Domingue would spread to their territories, began to adjust to the new situation and even envisage how they might turn it to their advantage in their own struggles with republican France. While the period of"republican emancipation" from 1793 to 1798 suggested the possibility of a peaceful outcome to the struggles that had --- Page 73 --- Republican Emancipation in Saint-Domingue, 1793-1798 begun in 1791, the new order that took to be a fragile one. Although the members shape during those years proved developed in oft the new governing elite that in the armed Saint-Domingue, forces of the drawn mostly from the military officers oped since the start of the movements against white rule that had develelimination of slavery, they insurrections, all claimed to support the oft the plantation remained convinced that the basic features system that created the colony's wealth tained. The French had to be mainDomingue restored government, to its too, remained determined to see Saintvaluable function of providing the metropole with products it had exported before 1791. To the population, however, the plantation most of the black Neither system was synonymous with Saint-Domingue's new governing elites nor slavery. ment were able to find ways to make the the French governthat they had a stake in the mass of the former slaves to feel ropolitan France success of the new social order. And as metretreated from the radicalism of its own experience, its tolerance for the drastic revolutionary Saint-Domingue diminished changes that had taken place in as well. In reaction, the political figure, Toussaint Louverture, colony's dominant ity over the territory. At the end of began to challenge France'sauthorofthe French empire, but the 1798 Saint-Domingue was still a part and the possibility of a conflict between the metropole that would destroy the trans-Atlantic colony undertaken since 1793 was experiment Five becoming ever more threatening. years earlier, at the end of 1793, the chances that the missioners Sonthonax and Polverel would be able civil comdecrees abolishing slavery and to implement their for the French preserve the colony of Republic had seemed bleak. Saint-Domingue with Polverel having taking Separated from each other, his refuge in the south while way to Port-au-Prince, now officially Sonthonax made the west, the two French officials could do renamed Port-Républicain, in in the island and in France little but wait to see how events black population took played themselves out. Where they could, the of advantage of the commissioners' general liberty to desert the plantations, but in proclamations the British and the Spanish the the areas controlled by troops under commanders emancipation decrees had no effect. Black and loyal to the Spanish surrounded pushed into the mountains between the North Cap Français while the British and West occupied most of the port cities Provinces, in the areas that remained under on the west coast. Even slavery did not necessarily French authority, the abolition of Polverel in particular, bring rapid change in the population's life. strongly influenced by the free people of color in plantations, but in proclamations the British and the Spanish the the areas controlled by troops under commanders emancipation decrees had no effect. Black and loyal to the Spanish surrounded pushed into the mountains between the North Cap Français while the British and West occupied most of the port cities Provinces, in the areas that remained under on the west coast. Even slavery did not necessarily French authority, the abolition of Polverel in particular, bring rapid change in the population's life. strongly influenced by the free people of color in --- Page 74 --- 1793-1798 65 Republican Emancipation in Saint-Domingue, determined to make sure that the plantation the south and west, was system continued to operate, even without slavery. to turn the Atlantic, the embattled French Republic managed Across its foes during the fall of 1793, but its legislative the military tide against and in particular the Committee of assembly, the National Convention, to direct the war effort, were Public Safety, set up earlier in the year who denounced efforts of white colonists swayed by the lobbying and Polverel as traitors bent on destroying Saint-Domingue Sonthonax enemies. On 16 July 1793, the Convention in order to aid the country's commissioners and put them on trial had voted to recall the two national sent to Saint-Domingue their powers. Although no one was for abusing of it reached the Caribbean by September to implement this decree, news difficulties: their enemies could 1793, adding to Sonthonax and Polverel's If had been disavowed by their own government. now claim that they would have the two men had abandoned their mission, Saint-Domingue local warlords, and the and been divided between foreign occupiers Sonthonax and Polverel had chance of carrying out the abolition decrees issued would have been lost. The Turn of the Tide appeared in late 1793, Desperate as the situation in Saint-Domingue of the French cause and the began to turn in favor events gradually The foreign invasions proved less implementation of emancipation. looked. Like the white troops sent from threatening than they initially soldiers who had landed in the western part France, the redcoated British disease. Even with the help of of the island suffered heavy losses from on their side, French colonists and black slaves enrolled to fight white inland from the coastal positions they had they were unable to penetrate of color had initially welcomed the seized. Although many free men did not intend to treat them British, they soon learned that the occupiers numbers of them equally with the white French colonists, and increasing who had allied switched their support to the French. The black generals and Toussaint themselves with the Spanish, Jean-François, Biassou, as much remained hostile to the French, but they spent Louverture, did in to eliminate squabbling with each other as they attempting or energy They failed to capture Cap Français the remaining French positions. force, based on the north General Laveaux's small remaining to destroy they soon learned that the occupiers numbers of them equally with the white French colonists, and increasing who had allied switched their support to the French. The black generals and Toussaint themselves with the Spanish, Jean-François, Biassou, as much remained hostile to the French, but they spent Louverture, did in to eliminate squabbling with each other as they attempting or energy They failed to capture Cap Français the remaining French positions. force, based on the north General Laveaux's small remaining to destroy --- Page 75 --- Emancipation in Saint-Domingue, 1793-1798 Republican The black population also became increasingly coast at Port-de-Paix. for the insurgent armies did not mean aware that the Spanish support When the Spanish government in support for the abolition of slavery. whites in the French tried to win over the remaining Santo Domingo even its own officials wondered colony by guaranteeing their properties, they had made how they were going to fulfill the contradictory promises the Spanish had whites and the blacks. In the summer of 1793, to the the black leaders that the French Republic was near been able to convince of French successes in Europe defeat, but by the end of the year news blacks wonder if they had had reached the Caribbean, making some chosen to back the wrong side. Abolition Decree of 16 pluviose Year II The policy on the issue of slavery was Meanwhile, in France, revolutionary Three of the deputies whom about to be dramatically transformed. 1793 to seek the Convention's Sonthonax had had elected in September decree of 29 August 1793 - the endorsement of his general emancipation officer Jean-Baptiste white colonist Louis Dufay, the free black army Paris of color named Jean-Baptiste Mills - reached Belley, and a free man in the United States where at the end of January 1794, after a stopover and where by white French refugees in Philadelphia, they were assaulted meant to organize a slave rebellion their presence led to rumors that they the coloSouth. Despite frantic efforts by pro-slavery in the American the three men managed to present themselves nists to have them arrested, 1794, where they were seated to the National Convention on 3 February Province. On the following of Saint-Domingue's) North as representatives Convention, arguing that the aboliday, Dufay gave a long speech to the French and tion of slavery was the only way to keep Saint-Domingue slaves would eagerly promising the deputies that the grateful former was careful to work and fight to restore the colony. Although Dufay freed slaves' rights, the limits Sonthonax had placed on the emphasize seized the occasion to make a dramatic gesture the Convention deputies decree dated 16 pluviose Year II on behalf of human freedom. In a France had adopted the according to the revolutionary calendar that calendar to the Gregorian previous October - 4 February according blacks is abolished in all decreed that "slavery of the - the Convention decrees that all men living in the colonies, the colonies; consequently, it fight to restore the colony. Although Dufay freed slaves' rights, the limits Sonthonax had placed on the emphasize seized the occasion to make a dramatic gesture the Convention deputies decree dated 16 pluviose Year II on behalf of human freedom. In a France had adopted the according to the revolutionary calendar that calendar to the Gregorian previous October - 4 February according blacks is abolished in all decreed that "slavery of the - the Convention decrees that all men living in the colonies, the colonies; consequently, it --- Page 76 --- 1793-1798 67 Republican Emancipation in Saint-Domingue, French citizens and enjoy all the rights without distinction of color, are guaranteed by the constitution" action, which had only The Convention's decree was an unexpected whose leaders, from the Committee of Public Safety, limited support concerned with the ongoing war including Robespierre, were more from rival political Britain and the opposition to their policies the against Paris than with the question of slavery. Nevertheless, factions in one. Fort the first time in history, Convention's decision was a momentous abolished the institunational of a trans-Atlantic empire the government of its American colonies had been based tion on which the economies the French legislators decreed legal since their establishment. In addition, former slaves full citizens for people of all races, and made the equality concrete form by the seating of Belley of France. This promise was given Belley would continue to serve and Mills as members of the Convention. portrait of him by the until 1798; a full-length in the French legislature Girodet-Trioson has now become one leading French artist Anne-Louis period (Figure 3.1).The ofthe iconic images oft the French revolutionary ceremony in was celebrated with a great public decree of 16 pluviose had converted into a Notre Dame cathedral, which the revolutionaries that the of Reason." Speakers at the ceremony proclaimed "Temple marked a new era of human history, restoring the freeing of the blacks deserved to enjoy. natural liberty that all human beings Toussaint Louverture Joins the French decree of 16 pluviose was a major turning While the French Convention's the chance of its being successfully point in the struggle against slavery, the outcome of the military applied in Saint-Domingue depended on of The decisive break came at the beginning May struggle in the colony. the most effective of the black military 1794, when Toussaint Louverture, to the French after black leaders, shifted his allegiance from the Spanish on the west attacked the garrison in Gonaïves, fighters in his area Spanish "turnaround" are obscure. It is not coast. The exact details of Toussaint's had learned of the Convention's clear whether the black commander French in order to promote the abolition decree and decided to join the by his or whether he was motivated primarily cause of emancipation, black leaders and his calculation that ongoing rivalry with the other interests. mid-May, sides would help him advance his own By changing --- Page 77 --- AKAL Figure 3.1 Anne-Louis 1794 to 1799, the republican Girodet-Trioson, Portrait de French legislature colony of loan-Baptiste Belley. From ancestry, by deputies, most of Saint-Domingue whom was represented in the revolution Iean-Baptiste Belley, born in were black or of mixed racial and fought on behalf of the Africa, had gained his freedom Polverel in the crisis of June republican before the French artist Girodet, 1793 in Cap Français. commisioners In this Sonthonax and next to a statue of the he is shown wearing his deputy's drawing by the leading deux Indes had French Enlightenment author uniform and standing Source: criticized slavery and Raynal, whose Histoire des Chicago Art Institute. colonialism. revolution Iean-Baptiste Belley, born in were black or of mixed racial and fought on behalf of the Africa, had gained his freedom Polverel in the crisis of June republican before the French artist Girodet, 1793 in Cap Français. commisioners In this Sonthonax and next to a statue of the he is shown wearing his deputy's drawing by the leading deux Indes had French Enlightenment author uniform and standing Source: criticized slavery and Raynal, whose Histoire des Chicago Art Institute. colonialism. --- Page 78 --- 1793-1798 69 Republican Emancipation in Saint-Domingue, himself under the command of General however, Toussaint had put fought for the Spanish because he Laveaux, explaining that he had only and of the human had been "misled by the enemies of the Republic conversion was race." >2 For the embattled French republicans, Toussaint's *Since the brave Toussaint Louverture . has finally an enormous relief. of seeing all the Africans in the north seen his mistake, we have the hope their freedom by repentance, and coming to defend imitate his generous and Polverel wrote to him.' fighting for France," Sonthonax who had proclaimed the civil commissioners The two republican slaves did not have time to meet the black liberty of Saint-Domingue's the success of their efforts. On general who would ultimately guarantee the first official copy of the 8 June 1794, a French naval vessel brought but its captain also Convention's decree of 16 pluviose to the colony, and take them carried out his orders to arrest Sonthonax and Polverel of 16 1793. with the earlier decree July back to France, in accordance of the colony, but, even with General Laveaux was appointed as governor of holding off the British, Toussaint Louverture's support, his chances and their Port-au-Prince on 4 June, and the Spanish who had captured Sonthonax wrote him a farewell letter black allies, still seemed dubious. burned your last cartridge and telling him to "hold out until you have >4 Because ofthe British then follow the course that prudence will dictate' additional troops or naval blockade, there was no possibility of sending thermidor and the overthrow of Robespierre on 9 supplies from France, future of French colonial policy in doubt. Year II (27 July 1794) left the fall, "thermidorian reaction" that followed Robespierré's In the political Convention had enacted during the many of the radical measures the and white colonists lobbied "Reign ofTerror"in 1793-4 were overturned, reversed. In response to their furiously to have the abolition of slavery of 1794 the Convention set up a commission complaints, in November its sessions dragged inquiry to examine the events in Saint-Domingue; exhausted by his until the early fall of 1795, by which time Polverel, on experience in the colony, had died. immedigrueling Louverture's decision to join the French did not Toussaint and to the prospects of ately end the military threat to Saint-Domingue altered the balance of power in carrying out emancipation, but it greatly than that under Toussaint's 4,000 soldiers - a force larger the colony. added to those of the free colored generLaveaux's own command - were Bauvais in the south and the troops als André Rigaud and Louis-Jacques Jean-Louis Villatte, who had led by another free colored commander, . immedigrueling Louverture's decision to join the French did not Toussaint and to the prospects of ately end the military threat to Saint-Domingue altered the balance of power in carrying out emancipation, but it greatly than that under Toussaint's 4,000 soldiers - a force larger the colony. added to those of the free colored generLaveaux's own command - were Bauvais in the south and the troops als André Rigaud and Louis-Jacques Jean-Louis Villatte, who had led by another free colored commander, --- Page 79 --- 70 Republican Emancipation in Saint-Domingue, 1793-1798 successfully defended the city of Cap Français. In ritories occupied by Toussaint's forces military terms, the terin 1793, Toussaint had were critical. During the gained control of most of fighting the West," the chain of posts that divided the former "Cordon of West. His territory separated the the North Province from the those held by the other black British positions on the west coast from the island. From his generals and the Spanish in the interior of could threaten stronghold in the western mountains, both these enemies. he had Toussaint ence than the free colored Although less military experiFrench commanders, many of whom had served in expedition to Savannah, Georgia, during the the Independence, Toussaint also American War of proved to be the most capable of the group. A Black Leader Emerges Toussaint Louverture's background helps make himself the dominant explain why he was able to figure in into slavery in the colony in the Saint-Domingue after 1794. Born captive whose own father had mid-1740s, he was the son of an African of been a military commanderint the Dahomey in West Africa. Through his kingdom heard stories about Africa and knew family, Toussaint no doubt condemned to inferior that blacks were not inherently By 1776 at the latest, status; they could also be rulers and lead armies. Toussaint had obtained his a few years he even owned a small farm own freedom, and for personally benefited from the and a few slaves. He had thus a few successful openings that the slave system created for class" individuals to enter colonial and had learned how to society's "intermediate dominated world. Unlike pursue his own interests in a whitemost of the other black to read and write. In contrast to the insurgents, he was able elite, however, who often wealthy members of the mixed-race Toussaint did not received inheritances from a white revolution. manage to accumulate much of a fortune ancestor, He seems to have sold his own before the his former owner's property and taken a job on be listed plantation, where his wife and as slaves until the revolution. children continued to Whether or not Toussaint played any role in the 1791 slave uprising remains in but he launching ofthe August of its leaders. Older and less dispute, was soon recognized as one generals, imposing physically than the two Jean-François and Biassou, Toussaint nevertheless principal summer of 1793 the third most became by the important of the insurgent commanders. sold his own before the his former owner's property and taken a job on be listed plantation, where his wife and as slaves until the revolution. children continued to Whether or not Toussaint played any role in the 1791 slave uprising remains in but he launching ofthe August of its leaders. Older and less dispute, was soon recognized as one generals, imposing physically than the two Jean-François and Biassou, Toussaint nevertheless principal summer of 1793 the third most became by the important of the insurgent commanders. --- Page 80 --- 1793-1798 71 Republican Emancipation in Saint-Domingue, cohort of officers from the By this time he had recruited an outstanding the initial French In June 1793, when he rejected ranks of the insurgents. the destruction of Cap Français, offer of limited emancipation after subordinates sign his reply to the Toussaint had had over thirty of his in a way that that he associated them with his decisions French, indicating Commanders like Jean-Jacques Dessalines, the other black leaders did not. roles in the miliMoise, and Henry Christophe would go on to play major letters written in of the years ahead. Whereas tary and political struggles were in broken French, Toussaint took the name of the other black generals his thoughts clearly pains to recruit white secretaries who could express was part of Conscious that the struggle in Saint-Domingue and effectively. Toussaint made efforts to inform himself about a larger political picture, events in Europe and elsewhere. Louverture wrote to General The long series of letters Toussaint of the most important Laveaux in the years from 1794 to 1796, one reveal the that oft the black leader, qualities sources for our understanding Attentive to every detail of the made him such an effective commander. lost sight of the larger stramilitary situation confronting him, he never of proreminded Laveaux of the importance tegic picture. He regularly ammunition for his troops. To improve his viding food, uniforms, and with military expehe captured white prisoners soldiers' skills, employed too small to escape his attention, and rience as trainers. No skirmish was intentions even from seemingly he was skilled at deducing his enemies' he to Laveaux, he minor moves on their part; in addition, as reported the blacks serving the had recruited a network of informants among the officers serving British and Spanish. He pushed Laveaux to reward he always and honors, and although under him with promotions even calling him "Papa," addressed the French general respectfully, for his lack of initiative Toussaint never hesitated to criticize his superior and imagination. in the first negotiations with the From the time when he participated himself by December 1791, Toussaint had always distinguished French in of He knew how to win the his keen understanding of the realities politics. them, and he was quick loyalty of subordinates, by praising and rewarding reining in that seemed to undermine his authority, to react to anything Skilled at assessing the motives those who tried to operate independently. Toussaint outmaneuvered: a long ofothers while keeping his own concealed, he assumed that a sucsuccession of rivals and opponents. From the start, the creation of an of the black insurrection would require cessful ending ssaint had always distinguished French in of He knew how to win the his keen understanding of the realities politics. them, and he was quick loyalty of subordinates, by praising and rewarding reining in that seemed to undermine his authority, to react to anything Skilled at assessing the motives those who tried to operate independently. Toussaint outmaneuvered: a long ofothers while keeping his own concealed, he assumed that a sucsuccession of rivals and opponents. From the start, the creation of an of the black insurrection would require cessful ending --- Page 81 --- Emancipation in Saint-Domingue, 1793-1798 72 Republican members of all three of Saint-Domingue's orderly society that integrated of color, and the whites. He was racial groups, the blacks, the free men of all these groups, while relations with members careful to keep up good them. His seriousnessi impressed avoiding being totallyi identified with anyoft whom he in and the French officials with corresponded both the Spanish equally adept at negotiating with 1793, and in the years after 1794 he proved the British military authorities in Saint-Domingue. ideas were is difficult to Exactly what Toussaint Louverture's political he knew how to frame arguments determine. Like all good politicians, he wanted to win over and to change to appeal to the different audiences Having decided to join the his language to suit new circumstances. he had side, he embraced the republican principles French publicly for the Spanish. "We are republicans," denounced when he was fighting free accordin June 1795, "and consequently he wrote in a proclamation who dare to claim the right ing to natural right. It can only be kings nature has made free." to reduce to slavery men like themselves, whom he could have stood aside A free man himself even before the revolution, with the but after the failure of the negotiations from the insurgency, committed himself to the fight whites in December 1791, he clearly defended the freedom of the against slavery. Although he consistently that freedom slaves after 1793, he was equally firm in insisting former for the blacks to do anything they wanted, and did not mean the right black-dominated society. Like he was not trying to create an entirely proclamations, he Sonthonax and Polverel in their 1793 emancipation the parish functioning. After he occupied wanted to keep the plantations to Laveaux that he had been of Mirebalais in the fall of 1795, he reported labor in every detail. careful to implement the regulations for plantation he claimed, adding "All the cultivators are back home and working hard," commander and that he had named a white officer as the area's military Facing in the district humanely. treated the white plantation-owners of the North Province in down a revolt among blacks in one region be grateful for the "benefiFebruary 1796, he told them that they should should show France that them liberty" and that they cent decree gives their submission to the laws, by that they were worthy ofits support "by in their obedience." >5 Toussaint thus put himself oppotheir work and by desire to take over land for themsition to the rural black cultivateurs' system. selves and escape from the constraints of the plantation ideal of a his loyalty to France and to the Even as he emphasized also underlined his special relamulti-racial society, however, Toussaint , he told them that they should should show France that them liberty" and that they cent decree gives their submission to the laws, by that they were worthy ofits support "by in their obedience." >5 Toussaint thus put himself oppotheir work and by desire to take over land for themsition to the rural black cultivateurs' system. selves and escape from the constraints of the plantation ideal of a his loyalty to France and to the Even as he emphasized also underlined his special relamulti-racial society, however, Toussaint --- Page 82 --- Republican Emancipation in Saint-Domingue, 1793-1798 tionship with the colony's black Africans, my brothers" that he issued population. In a proclamation to "you "father who adores them" in early 1796, he called himself a who first raised the and urged them to remember "that it was I standard of insurrection against exhorting the blacks to remain tyranny." While that loyal to France, he also "there are more blacks in the colony than there reminded them whites combined . and we are the >6 are men of color and Toussaint Louverture strongest, Another area in which licanism distinguished himself from orthodox was the question of Even French repubradical policies adopted religion. as it abandoned many of the ment remained during the Reign of Terror, the French violently hostile to the Catholic governother hand, continued to his Church. Toussaint, on the told Laveaux that "I have express religious sentiments. In late 1794 he shed blood; always held in horror those leaders who like to my religion forbids it and I follow its Laveaux complained about his own principles," and when him, "Let us imitate Jesus Christ problems in 1796 Toussaint counseled words that no French who died and suffered SO much for us," In republican of the period would have addition to maintaining his own distinctive written." Louverture clearly sought to increase his ideas, Toussaint expense of the other principal power and influence at the French side. He regularly. military commanders fighting on the mander in Le complained to Laveaux about Villatte, the Cap, and he emphasized the comhad made to support Rigaud and importance of the efforts he were unable to hold off the British Bauvais in the south, implying that they Laveaux's on their own. In addition to support, Toussaint cultivating to recognize his appealed directly to the French government contributions to its cause. As early as June 1795, newspaper had mentioned "Toussaint Bréda one Paris troops under the republican who marches with his this ence to him in the European banner"; may have been the first referthe election of press." In December 1795, Toussaint oversaw deputies to represent the West Province in the legislature. The men he selected were French great and memorable services he has officially instructed to report "the the citizens who have lived under his rendered to the country and to all kind and humane command." Toussaint's Rivals Although Toussaint Louverture was destined to tant figure in become the most imporSaint-Domingue, the revolutionary upheavals from 1791 to him in the European banner"; may have been the first referthe election of press." In December 1795, Toussaint oversaw deputies to represent the West Province in the legislature. The men he selected were French great and memorable services he has officially instructed to report "the the citizens who have lived under his rendered to the country and to all kind and humane command." Toussaint's Rivals Although Toussaint Louverture was destined to tant figure in become the most imporSaint-Domingue, the revolutionary upheavals from 1791 --- Page 83 --- Emancipation in Saint-Domingue, 1793-1798 74 Republican several other powerful leaders in the colony. to 1793 had also produced leader who had played a major role in Pierre Pinchinat, the free colored in 1791 and 1792, had negotiating the concordats with white royalists and continued to exert a switched to the republican camp in late 1792 1794, however, he influence among members of that group. By strong the free colored military comby André Rigaud, was overshadowed independently of General mander in the South Province. Operating the British forces in Laveaux in the north, Rigaud successfully prevented the Grande Anse, at the Port-au-Prince from linking up with those in when the civil end of the southern peninsula. In June 1794, western Polverel officially appointed Rigaud as commissioners left the island, imporof the South Province. Rigaud's position was especially governor Province had been less affected by slave uprisings tant because the South other of the colony. American than the parts and military operations the on the island's south coast, trading ships continued to reach ports Rigaud's terrisugar and coffee and sold supplies. where they purchased that continued to tory was therefore the only part of Saint-Domingue hoped to use its resources to and French officials function economically, fund the defense of the rest of the colony. cause well had committed himself to the French republican Rigaud Louverture. As early as May 1793, Rigaud had also before Toussaint his and the majority offered freedom to black slaves who joined army, were black. in the "Legion of the South" he had created of the troops them, however, were, like Rigaud Nearly all the officers commanding mixed race. Even as he claimed to accept himself, light-skinned men of of the races, Rigaud rigorously the abolition of slavery and the equality thel blacks working imposed by Polverel to keep enforced the regulations Toussaint Louverture's black skin Whereas' on their former plantations. former slave allowed him to put himself and his background as a black majority, Rigaud of the colony's forward as a representative of the wealthy free men of color. embodied the elitist pretentions imbued with French culture Although the free men of color were more the French. From than the blacks, they were not necessarily favored by of view, the free men of color seemed dangerously the French point the by themselves; in addiprone to think that they could run colony willing to ally with the tion, many of them had shown themselves the start of the revolution, British in the West Province. As it had since comthe free men of color and the blacks greatly the rivalry between plicated events in the colony. free men of color. embodied the elitist pretentions imbued with French culture Although the free men of color were more the French. From than the blacks, they were not necessarily favored by of view, the free men of color seemed dangerously the French point the by themselves; in addiprone to think that they could run colony willing to ally with the tion, many of them had shown themselves the start of the revolution, British in the West Province. As it had since comthe free men of color and the blacks greatly the rivalry between plicated events in the colony. --- Page 84 --- Republican Emancipation in Saint-Domingue, 1793-1798 The British and the Spanish While Toussaint Louverture and André of slavery in the areas under their Rigaud both proclaimed the end occupied by the British control, the blacks in the were still subjected to regions these areas, however, the legal servitude. Even in maintain. The system was becoming increasingly difficult to fighting in the area disrupted the that had not been affected by the routine on plantations 60,000 to 70,000 slaves uprisings between 1791 and 1793. Some - perhaps a sixth of the total the colony - lived in the regions under black population in disproportionate number of them British occupation, although a feeble to have joined the were either too young, too old, or too tion of color in the insurgents or the French army. The free populaoccupied areas generally backed the they were disappointed when they realized that British, although the same privileges as the they were not being given agreed to serve in under remaining whites. Some of the white colonists ity between the two nations. British command, despite the traditional hostilof "To carry arms against the slaves Saint-Domingue is not to be traitorous to one's revolting it," one of the French who enrolled country; it is to serve Ironically, however, this under British command wrote. 10 French plantation-owner found manding black soldiers who had been himself comfor military service: as British promised their freedom in return other source of troops fell victim to disease, there was no manpower to counter the talented black military republican forces. Jean Kina, a in 1794, commander who had turned was allowed to lead his own unit, which against the French free men of color and a number of slaves came to include some Jamaica. Even in trying to defend the Kina had purchased from their French colonial allies thus system of slavery, the British and to its destruction by found themselves forced to contribute allowing blacks to earn their freedom tary service. through miliWhile Toussaint Louverture and André the west, events in Europe drove Rigaud held off the British in to take over the eastern the Spanish to abandon their attempt part of the colony, In July attempt to invade southern France had been 1795, after their signed the treaty of Basle and withdrew driven back, the Spanish agreement, Spain from the war. As part oft the agreed to cede its colony of Santo peace Jean-François and Biassou, Toussaint Domingo to France. leaders of the black insurrection, Louverture's main rivals among the departed from the island along with Rigaud held off the British in to take over the eastern the Spanish to abandon their attempt part of the colony, In July attempt to invade southern France had been 1795, after their signed the treaty of Basle and withdrew driven back, the Spanish agreement, Spain from the war. As part oft the agreed to cede its colony of Santo peace Jean-François and Biassou, Toussaint Domingo to France. leaders of the black insurrection, Louverture's main rivals among the departed from the island along with --- Page 85 --- Emancipation in Saint-Domingue, 1793-1798 76 Republican others were forces, taking with them some of their troops; the Spanish The of his former rivals integrated into Toussaint's forces. disappearance who could claim to left Toussaint Louverture as the only major figure that had his participation in the uprising have earned his position by the military in August 1791, and the only black man among had begun forces. Elsewhere in the Caribbean, the French leaders of the French occupied by the British in early Guadeloupe, briefly already reconquered that disrupted 1794, and turned it into a base for privateering operations of the French comUnder the dictatorial leadership British commerce. were recruited for milimissioner Victor Hugues, blacks in Guadeloupe former member and given civil rights, although Hugues, a tary positions that had veheof the white "patriot" movement in Saint-Domingue the provisions of the mently defended slavery, refused to implement the British making them full citizens. Even though decree of 16 pluviose French Caribbean colony, Martinique, retained control ofthe third major in occupiedi in 1793, the French successesi Saint-Domingue which theyhad largely by black troops, ensured the and Guadeloupe, made possible French presence in the region. survival of a significant and the Villatte Affair The Directory the services Toussaint Louverture and the General Laveaux recognized had performed by recother leading commanders in Saint-Domingue in the French that they be promoted to the rank of generals ommending promotions for Toussaint, Rigaud, army. The Convention approved that the and Villatte in July 1795, thus officially recognizing Bauvais, had become dependent not just on black troops defense of the colony of African descent. A month later, the but also on military commanders constitution for France, creating Convention approved a new republican the country until that would govern a regime known as the Directory November 1799. Even though the Napoleon Bonaparte's coup d'état in reaction Constitution of 1795 represented a conservative new French innovations of the revolution and restricted against many of the radical maintained the abolithe rights ofthe poor in France itself, the Directory would be fully in the colonies and promised that they tion of slavery living under the same laws as the integrated into the French Republic, decreed, and you "The abolition of slavery was solemnly metropole. it," the chairman of the constitutional drafting would not want to change . Even though the Napoleon Bonaparte's coup d'état in reaction Constitution of 1795 represented a conservative new French innovations of the revolution and restricted against many of the radical maintained the abolithe rights ofthe poor in France itself, the Directory would be fully in the colonies and promised that they tion of slavery living under the same laws as the integrated into the French Republic, decreed, and you "The abolition of slavery was solemnly metropole. it," the chairman of the constitutional drafting would not want to change --- Page 86 --- 1793-1798 77 Republican Emancipation in Saint-Domingue, "It was a consequence of your principles, a committee told the deputies. could not fail to proclaim it forceresult of your revolution, and you commission of inquiry finally confullyen The outgoing Convention's vindicating the measures cluded its work in September 1795, fully Sonthonax and Polverel had taken in 1793. died midway vindication came too late for Polverel, who had This Sonthonax the opportunity to through the hearings, but it allowed the French legislature resume his work in the colony. In January 1796, Like the comapproved the appointment of a new Civil Commission. five members of in 1791 and in 1792, the missioners sent to the colony broad powers. Sonthonax, this Third Civil Commission were given was the most alone the policy of emancipation, whose name symbolized Julien Raimond, prominent memberoftheg prenittedopsaivineul free men of color who of Saint-Domingue's a well-known representative behalf since the start of the revolution, as had been lobbying on their member ofthe First Civil Commission well as Philippe Roume, a former takeover of Santo Domingo, and who was sent to supervise the French and Marc Antoine Giraud, two other white officials, Pierre Leblanc colonial matters. The five men in appointed for their supposed expertise accompanied by 1,200 sailed from France at the beginning of April 1796, Vimeur of General Donatien Marie Joseph troops under the command the last French forces fightde Rochambeau, who would later command with them some the blacks under Napoleon. They brought ing against who now constituted the bulk 20,000 muskets to arm the black troops reinforcements from of the French army, and they expected additional British invaders, although France who would enable them to defeat the this decided that it could not keep promise. in fact the Directory soon to depart from While the Third Civil Commission was preparing and from 1796, the end of the threat from the Spanish France in early under their banner led to a sharpening of the black forces fighting Villatte, the free rivalries within the French camp in Saint-Domingue. around Cap Français colored general who had commanded the region submit to the impatient at having to since 1793, became increasingly military man who had orders of General Laveaux, the white French and Polverel were of the colony when Sonthonax become governor moved his headquarters back to arrested in June 1794. When Laveaux the two men intensified. Le Cap in late 1795, the conflict between further widened Laveaux's clear preference for Toussaint Louverture March him and Villatte. On 30 ventôse Year IV (20 the gap between submit to the impatient at having to since 1793, became increasingly military man who had orders of General Laveaux, the white French and Polverel were of the colony when Sonthonax become governor moved his headquarters back to arrested in June 1794. When Laveaux the two men intensified. Le Cap in late 1795, the conflict between further widened Laveaux's clear preference for Toussaint Louverture March him and Villatte. On 30 ventôse Year IV (20 the gap between --- Page 87 --- Emancipation in Saint-Domingue, 1793-1798 78 Republican Laveaux Villatte staged a military coup in Cap Français, putting 1796), officials under arrest and declaring himself governor and other white direct challenge to the French governof the island. His action was a that Saint-Domingue ment, andi it raised for the first time the possibility white and who under the control of a ruler who was not could come government. On the surface, had not been appointed by the French in the name of the seemed to represent a bid for power Villatte's coup that had challenged the whites earlier free population of color, a group blacks revolution, and an effort to exclude the more numerous in the Matters were complicated, since from the leadership of the colony. black and not all free men of color many of Villatte's own troops were Rigaud and the other free colored generals, joined his movement; him. Nevertheless, Villatte's move Bauvais, made no move to support between the anciens libres, had the potential to reopen racial divisions libres, or citizens of 20 or citizens of 4 April, and the black nouveaux since the 1793 emancipaJune, that had been papered over in the years tion proclamations. Toussaint Louverture the opportunity to The Villatte crisis allowed in Saint-Domingue. himself as the savior of French authority the present odds with Villatte ever since he joined Toussaint had been at officers in Le Cap French forces. After Villatte's coup, black military marched for aid, and the black general quickly appealed to Toussaint in the western mountains. Seeing his toward the city from his base and released Laveaux outnumbered, Villatte abandoned his plans forces accused the French general of plotfrom prison. Villatte's supporters and Toussaint made an elaborate ting to restore slavery in the island, accusation, thus demonshow of investigating and disproving this freedom of the blacks. his commitment to maintaining the strating attempt was thus to underline Toussaint The outcome ofVillatte's coup in the northern part of SaintLouverture's dominant position restoration of his freedom and Domingue. Laveaux, who owed the rewarded the black general perhaps his life to Tousaintsintervention, elevating him above by naming him deputy governor of the colony, followed the coup attempt, In the weeks that the free colored generals. of rural areas in the north. Even troubles broke out in a number as well as that he had free colored supporters though he emphasized these disturbances on free colored folblack ones, Toussaint blamed as fomenters of lowers of Villatte, casting the free colored population disorder in the colony. omingue. Laveaux, who owed the rewarded the black general perhaps his life to Tousaintsintervention, elevating him above by naming him deputy governor of the colony, followed the coup attempt, In the weeks that the free colored generals. of rural areas in the north. Even troubles broke out in a number as well as that he had free colored supporters though he emphasized these disturbances on free colored folblack ones, Toussaint blamed as fomenters of lowers of Villatte, casting the free colored population disorder in the colony. --- Page 88 --- 1793-1798 79 Republican Emancipation in Saint-Domingue, The Third Civil Commission Civil Commission in Cap Français on 11 May The arrival of the Third in the colony. Sonthonax 1796 opened a new period of political struggle French commitment to immediately reaffirmed the and his colleagues of of all races, but they the abolition of slavery and the equality people successful generals determined to rein in the power of the were equally during the previous two years, when whose power had grown steadily directly in the colony's the metropole had been unable to intervene Sonthonax's role in proclaimaffairs. The black population remembered and welcomed him warmly; it emancipation in August 1793 ing general would automatically prefer a black was by no means certain that they Frenchman who had demleader like Toussaint Louverture to this white accepting a concern for the colony's welfare by onstrated his genuine and who had shown his indifference second mission to Saint-Domingue Bléigeat, a woman of racial by marrying Marie Eugénie to prejudices there and who had borne him a son color he had met on his first stay the threat that Sonthonax's during their stayi in Parisin 1795. Recognizing Louverture maneuvered presence posed to his own authority, Toussaint confrontation his own power, avoiding an open carefully to preserve to rid himself of this powerful rival. while waiting for an opportunity in the midst The Third Civil Commission landed in Saint-Domingue first its members crisis caused by Villatte's coup attempt, and at of the to French authority posed by the concerned with the challenge were more Toussaint Louverture. free colored generals than with that represented by Rochambeau wrote deported to France, and Villatte himself was promptly announcing projects that "the men of color are loudly to France warning Third Civil Commission sent three for independence." >12 In June 1796, the to re-establish white delegates of its own, along with a white general, had made in the South Province, where André Rigaud French authority territory. The members of the himself the virtual ruler of a considerable for exploiting blamed the men of color in the region delegation openly the latter to demand their rights. General Edme the blacks, and urged the Legion of the South, Desfourneaux: sought to break up Rigaud's army, Desfourneaux also and put its units under independent commanders. attack on the British ordered Rigaud to undertake a poorly prepared Grande Anse, at the western end oft the South Province'slong forces in the when the effort failed. peninsula, and blamed Rigaud The members of the himself the virtual ruler of a considerable for exploiting blamed the men of color in the region delegation openly the latter to demand their rights. General Edme the blacks, and urged the Legion of the South, Desfourneaux: sought to break up Rigaud's army, Desfourneaux also and put its units under independent commanders. attack on the British ordered Rigaud to undertake a poorly prepared Grande Anse, at the western end oft the South Province'slong forces in the when the effort failed. peninsula, and blamed Rigaud --- Page 89 --- Emancipation in Saint-Domingue, 1793-1798 80 Republican actions, the free men of color reacted In the face of these provocative roused to action by the local free strongly. On 11 August 1796, blacks capital, and massaof color invaded the city of Cayes, the region's men members, fortunate to escape cred a number of whites. The delegation's who had kept himself with their lives, were forced to appeal to Rigaud, the killdistance from the violence, to restore order. After bringing at a expelled the delegates whose confrontaings in Cayes to an end, Rigaud Sonthonax issued a tional tactics had provoked them. Although of him from denouncing Rigaud, he had no way ousting proclamation and in fact needed the free colored general's! help his southern stronghold the colony. The South in fending off a renewed British effort to conquer fiefdom under Rigaud's Province thus remained a virtually autonomous than that forced Sonthonax to rely even more heavily control, a situation Toussaint Louverture for support. before on the seemingly more loyal results in 1794 and 1795, had The British, despite disappointing substantial effort to capture the decided in July 1795 to make a more 12,000 fresh British French colonies in the Caribbean. By July 1796, conflicts between had been landed in Saint-I Domingue. The troops Louverture, the free men of color, and the French commissionToussaint British to think that they could finally achieve success. ers encouraged the defeats on Toussaint's the British did inflict some significant În mid-1796 victory. By the end of forces, but they were unable to achieve a decisive island was still relathe military situation in the the year, even though had concluded that the tively favorable for them, the British government to be sustained. A expedition had become too costly Saint-Domingue Simcoe, arrived in February 1797, with orders General new commander, even before he departed in July to make cutting costs his top priority; their effort clear that the British were preparing to abandon 1797, it was to seize the colony. Laveaux, and Sonthonax Toussaint Louverture, role in defeating the British in 1796, Toussaint Louverture played a major his own power and concerned with consolidating but he was equally re-establish control over the colony. warding off the French attempt to that no future French From his point of view, the only way to guarantee the abolition of slavery would go back on its commitment to at government black man like himself in charge of Saint-Domingue; was to have a 1797, it was to seize the colony. Laveaux, and Sonthonax Toussaint Louverture, role in defeating the British in 1796, Toussaint Louverture played a major his own power and concerned with consolidating but he was equally re-establish control over the colony. warding off the French attempt to that no future French From his point of view, the only way to guarantee the abolition of slavery would go back on its commitment to at government black man like himself in charge of Saint-Domingue; was to have a --- Page 90 --- Republican Emancipation in Saint-Domingue, 1793-1798 the same time, he was clearly pursuing his own ambitions. resorting to a coup d'état, as his free colored Rather than Toussaint used more subtle rival Villatte had done, who stood in his means to rid himself of the French officials way. In August 1796, the Civil elections to choose Commission organized deputies to represent Directory's legislative assemblies. It is unclear how Saint-Domingue in the tion actually participated in the election much of the populamet the stiff qualifications for process: few blacks would have of 1795 that voting imposed byt the French constitution supposedly governed them. Toussaint on those who did take part, them exerted heavy pressure Sonthonax urging to include General Laveaux and influential among the deputies. He thus hoped to the white figures in the colony, and the get two most personal popularity among the black only two who had some Laveaux, who had been population, to return to France. serving in up little resistance to Toussaint Saint-Domingue since 1792, put accepted the black general's Louverture's pressure; he may have defending the freedom of argument that he could be more useful colony, With his the black population in France than in the of the French departure, Toussaint became the forces there. Sonthonax was commanding general of the blacks in the North more reluctant to leave. Many him Province, where he had urged to stay, and he therefore established himself, of 1797. Although he treated continued his mission through most politeness, the two the powerful black general with elaborate came into conflict on numerous on the need to restore the plantation issues. Both agreed former slaves who did not system, despite the resistance of the want to find themselves back discipline, but Toussaint ignored under strict blacks were serving in the army and Sonthonax's that suggestion that too many to farm work. Sonthonax some of them should bei returned key positionsin the with recognized that Toussaint was trying to fill all imitated Victor army officers personally loyal to him. Sonthonax Hugues in Guadeloupe by attacks on British and encouraging privateering with the British-held especially on American merchant ships ports on the west coast. This wasi in line with trading policy: by 1796, the Directory had decided French policy of neutrality in the to punish its former ally's war between the two starting what came to be known as the European powers, thus States. Sonthonax insisted that "Quasi-War" with the United from captured American the supplies of grain and meat seized civilian vessels were vital to feed the troops and population, but Toussaint the would cut off normal trade with objected that Sonthonax's policy the Yankees and perhaps make them . This wasi in line with trading policy: by 1796, the Directory had decided French policy of neutrality in the to punish its former ally's war between the two starting what came to be known as the European powers, thus States. Sonthonax insisted that "Quasi-War" with the United from captured American the supplies of grain and meat seized civilian vessels were vital to feed the troops and population, but Toussaint the would cut off normal trade with objected that Sonthonax's policy the Yankees and perhaps make them --- Page 91 --- Emancipation in Saint-Domingue, 1793-1798 82 Republican remained to the Caribbean altogether. While Sonthonax give up coming anti-religious policy, determined to enforce the French republicans' Catholic priest and supToussaint wrote to the abbé Grégoire, a French to restore the of abolition, to ask for help in recruiting priests porter church in the colony. in France undermined Sonthonax's A change of political atmosphere Louverture to take decisive steps to position and encouraged Toussaint forces scored major gains oust him. In April 1797, counterrevolutionary elections held in France since the in the first relatively free parliamentary white colonists who had fled start of the Directory in 1795. Egged on by made the dismissal of deputies to France, the counterrevolutionary "order" in Saint-Domingue one of the Sonthonax and the restoration of their hope that their of them openly expressed first issues on agenda; many decided that it was urgent for him to slavery could be restored. Toussaint French with of the government ensure that there was no representative left in the island. Two of the white comeven nominal authority over him the third, Roume, was in the missioners had already left Saint-Domingue; and unable to intervenei in the former Spanish territory of Santo Domingo had thrown in his Raimond, the free colored commissioner, conflict. Julien him to enrich himself by acquiring a lot with Toussaint, who had helped 1797, Toussaint and plantations. On 20 August number of abandoned letter telling him that several of his generals sent Sonthonax a peremptory the which to tell France what you have seen, prodigies his duty was "go the defender ofthe cause we have embraced, you have witnessed. Be always >13 Faced with this ultimatum, for which we shall be eternal soldiers. Paris. abandoned his resistance and returned to Sonthonax claimed that Sonthonax was needed to While Toussaint Louverture accusing in France, he also wrote to the Directory, defend emancipation to make the island independent of the commissioner of having plotted influence, however, France. Even as he tried to destroy Sonthonax's white colonial lobby Toussaint did not overlook the menace posed by the refuted letter addressed to the Directory, he explicitly in France. In a long spokesmen. He reminded the arguments put forward by the pro-slavery blacks who, when France was the French government that "it was the and their weapons to threatened with losing the colony, used their arms force reassert it," and he warned that if the French tried to use conserve the black population, *with the their authority in Saint-Domingue, will defend the liberty it guarantees." But, Constitution in one hand . about the future of he claimed, there was no need for France to worry the Directory, he explicitly in France. In a long spokesmen. He reminded the arguments put forward by the pro-slavery blacks who, when France was the French government that "it was the and their weapons to threatened with losing the colony, used their arms force reassert it," and he warned that if the French tried to use conserve the black population, *with the their authority in Saint-Domingue, will defend the liberty it guarantees." But, Constitution in one hand . about the future of he claimed, there was no need for France to worry --- Page 92 --- 1793-1798 83 Republican Emancipation in Saint-Domingue, to him, the former slaves were already returning the colony. According rights of the former white plantationto fieldwork and the property the whites, the reds [free people of owners were fully respected. "We see equality" he claimed." 14 color], and the blacks living in the most perfect choice between Toussaint's letter offered the French government a control over the freedom of the black population and his own would accepting on a policy of confrontation that Saint-Domingue, or embarking risk destroying the colony altogether. letter and the exiled Sonthonax By the time Toussaint Louverture's situation in the metropole arrivedinl Francein thefall of 1797, thej political On 4 September 1797, militant republican had changed once again. the man who had emerged as the members of the Directory, backed by general Napoleon of their army commanders, the young most powerful the counterrerolutionarye deputies Bonaparte, had staged a coup against Arrest warrants were issued elected to the legislature the previous April. from their rightwing deputies, and others were ousted for the leading of 18 fructidor Year V was a reafseats. One consequence of this coup the abolition of slavery firmation of the Directory's intention to maintain slaves' into the metropolitan politiin the colonies and the ex integration nivôse Year VI (1 January 1798) cal system. A new law passed on 12 civil institutions to the colooutlined procedures for extending French the same that "black or colored individuals . enjoy nies, reasserted born in French territory as long as they work as rights as an individual a profession or trade," and cultivateurs, serve in the army, or exercise by encourpromised, among other things, to "favor growth in population unions" and to and rewarding the fertility of legitimate aging marriage 15 Sonthonax, although he accused Toussaint organize public schools." independent of France, Louverture of plotting to make Saint-Domingue conditions there were improvechoed the black general in arguing that the whole territory, has ing. "A provisional police force, organized across in and the love of work is SO strongly engraved put down vagabondage, that had been burned are their hearts, that the blacks from plantations 16 restoring the buildings themselves," he claimed.' A New Black Society the of 1798 seemed ready to While the French government at beginning and the rise of the result of the emancipation proclamations accept of France, Louverture of plotting to make Saint-Domingue conditions there were improvechoed the black general in arguing that the whole territory, has ing. "A provisional police force, organized across in and the love of work is SO strongly engraved put down vagabondage, that had been burned are their hearts, that the blacks from plantations 16 restoring the buildings themselves," he claimed.' A New Black Society the of 1798 seemed ready to While the French government at beginning and the rise of the result of the emancipation proclamations accept --- Page 93 --- Emancipation in Saint-Domingue, 1793-1798 84 Republican continued to Louverture, the colony's mostly black population Toussaint in the colony were neither as chaotic forge a new life fori itself. Conditions France claimed, nor as orderly as faction in as the counterrevolutionary wanted to depict them. Thanks to Toussaint Louverture and Sonthonax blacks living in the Frenchof 1793, the emancipation proclamations free. French officials controlled parts of the island were now legally based on race and legal watched vigilantly to be sure that old distinctions anyone revived. In 1796, Sonthonax threatened to punish status were not slaves' condition by labeling them "freedmen." who recalled the former the were obligated those blacks who were still on plantations Although field labor, they were now entitled to a salary for to continue performing punishments were prohibited. their efforts. Whipping and other physical and many of them took Blacks could marry and form their own families, the inforof their new rights to obtain documents legalizing advantage The French adminties had formed during the era of slavery. mal they family encouraged them to embrace European-style istration strongly clear how much success this policy actuarrangements, although it is not make contracts, and some of ally had. Blacks could acquire property and been run by businesses in the cities that had formerly them took over whites. free, the colony's blacks faced many Although they were now legally benefited from the exploitadifficulties during these years. Slaves had not of 1791, but the disruptive system that was destroyed in the uprisings blacks to economy often left the freed struggling tion of the colony's enough food to feed had never produced make a living. Saint-Domingue of its meat, fish, and grain. Freed slaves itself, relying on imports for most used for sugar in order to grow took over some of the fields previously that had formerly food crops, but they could not replace the supplies would In the nineteenth century, Haiti gradually arrived from overseas. with small farmers producing food be transformed into a peasant society, but there themselves and a surplus to feed the rest of the population, for in the way of this process in the 1790s. One of were still many obstacles uncertain legal status of the land the most important of these was the who had fled the belonged to white plantation-owners that had formerly had been willing to deprive the whites colony. Sonthonax and Polverel but they refused to take of their human property by freeing the slaves, took over the managesuch drastic steps with regard to real estate. They plantations, in the name of the French government, ment of abandoned remained uncertain. but the question of ownership the way of this process in the 1790s. One of were still many obstacles uncertain legal status of the land the most important of these was the who had fled the belonged to white plantation-owners that had formerly had been willing to deprive the whites colony. Sonthonax and Polverel but they refused to take of their human property by freeing the slaves, took over the managesuch drastic steps with regard to real estate. They plantations, in the name of the French government, ment of abandoned remained uncertain. but the question of ownership --- Page 94 --- 1793-1798 85 Republican Emancipation in Saint-Domingue, French law, owners who had fled to enemy countries According to was supposed to be confiswere classified as rebels, and their property their lives were in danger, but those who had left because cated outright, countries like the United States particularly if they had gone to neutral and their estates were legally or to France itself, had the status of refugees was to try to keep planprotected. In either case, however, French policy could eventually be tation properties intact, SO that sugar production farms for individual rather than dividing them into smaller revived, the authorities appointed managers to run families. Where they could, disputes over their ownership the abandoned plantations until the legal vulnerable to corrupcould finally be resolved. When this system proved owners officials turned to leasing the properties to private tion, French that favored wealthy and who had the resources to run them, a policy had enriched themwell-connected figures, such as army officers who officers were Louverture and many of his selves during the war. Toussaint for themselves in this those who acquired extensive properties among responsible for helping to maintain way, and Julien Raimond, supposedly notorious for taking advantage French authority in the colony, became not sure whether the Blacks who had less influence were of the system. for good. In May 1798, one ex-slave former white owners were really gone that he had obtained wrote to his former master in France, announcing three of its four sugarand had put the lease on the master's plantation return, you will find your back in production. "When you cane fields found that the > he concluded." Poorer ex-slaves propertyi in good shape; farmers was to take only way of establishing themselves as independent where they could land in the island's mountain regions, over marginal farmers. The blacks who settled hope to eke out a living as subsistence of resistance to the French in the mountains would form the backbone also exacerbated invasion of 1802, but this shift in settlement patterns had been noticeable of deforestation and soil erosion that the problems revolution, as black peasants cut down trees even before the start of the to clear land for their plantings. former land The situation of thel black population living on plantation white owner end of the 1790s is illustrated by the memoirs of one at the property in 1799.Although he certainly who was able to visit his family's caused by the the dilapidation of the property wanted to emphasize observations reflect the difficulties caused ouster of the slaveowners, his mixed-race son of by the events of the intervening years. An illegitimate but he did not have the the former owner had been leasing the property, land for their plantings. former land The situation of thel black population living on plantation white owner end of the 1790s is illustrated by the memoirs of one at the property in 1799.Although he certainly who was able to visit his family's caused by the the dilapidation of the property wanted to emphasize observations reflect the difficulties caused ouster of the slaveowners, his mixed-race son of by the events of the intervening years. An illegitimate but he did not have the the former owner had been leasing the property, --- Page 95 --- Emancipation in Saint-Domingue, 1793-1798 86 Republican livestock maintain the buildings. Most of the plantation's resources to of the fields were overgrown with weeds. had disappeared, and many the remaining blacks were working Lacking draft animals to pull a plow, and most of the working-age the land with hoes and other hand tools, of living on the although the total number people men had disappeared, it had been before the start of the revoluproperty was about the same as herself saddened by tion. "Any reasonable man must suffer to see nature devastation," her made impotent by not being able to show generosity, in colonist wrote. 18 In view of the overall drop agricultural the former doubt that simply obtaining food was a struggle production, there is little for much of the population during these years. was that men were scarce on the plantations One reason younger various armies that disputed control of the many of them had joined the in a South Carolina colony in the 1790s. In 1795, a letter published a fourth are claimed that "half the population are soldiers, newspaper >19 By late 1798, farmworkers and the other fourth are roaming brigands." his command, not Louverture had some 23,000 men under Toussaint André Rigaudin the South Province; counting the sizable army created by. 15,000 blacks had been in addition, according to Toussaint, some withdrawal from Saintin the British forces at the time of their also serving In France itself, the revolutionary wars had Domingue in 1798." in the size of the army and an overall militaresulted in a great increase men that the revolutionaries rization of society, but the army of 700,000 of the total only about 2.5 percent had raised in 1793-4 represented declined during the Directory. population, and the number of soldiers of the populaby 1798, between 10 and 15 percent In Saint-Domingue, under arms. The fact that sO many men acquired tion may have been would eventually enable military during these years some experience Saint-Domingue, but the them to resist Napoleon's effort to reconquer to soldierdiversion of so much of the colony's younger male population to economy. Military service came appear ing had a negative effect on the interests, and soldiers became to be the best way of furthering one's own without what they needed to feed themselves, accustomed to taking were excluded from the opporhaving to work for it. Women, of course, for many men. that military service provided tunities for advancement resources being diverted to military With SO many of the colony's civil society efforts to build the basis of a racially egalitarian blacks purposes, The task was a daunting one. Under slavery, took second place. of education, and the French had been excluded from any possibility the interests, and soldiers became to be the best way of furthering one's own without what they needed to feed themselves, accustomed to taking were excluded from the opporhaving to work for it. Women, of course, for many men. that military service provided tunities for advancement resources being diverted to military With SO many of the colony's civil society efforts to build the basis of a racially egalitarian blacks purposes, The task was a daunting one. Under slavery, took second place. of education, and the French had been excluded from any possibility --- Page 96 --- Republican Emancipation in Saint-Domingue, 1793-1798 colonial administration had ondary schools even for children deliberately prevented the creation of seclies, of wealthy white and free preferring to make their colored famieducation parents send them to SO that they would not Europe for their tity. Sonthonax and the members develop a distinctive "American" idena model school in of the Third Civil Commission set Cap Français and claimed that up districts wanted them to send the blacks in rural to read and write, to instruct "young them." >21 European children, who knowh how lack of teachers, textbooks, Faced with an almost and other complete sion was unable to make much resources, however, the commispolicy of the colonial progress in this area. the era, the French government Continuing black and free colored leaders to send invited some of the they would be educated their children to France, where at government was one of those who accepted this expense. Toussaint Louverture offer. As he sons Isaac and Placide virtual discovered, this made his would later hostages of the French try to use them to make him submit government, which Unable to make much to its authority. progress in establishing schools, the government had somewhat more success in republican istration in the colony. New courts re-establishing civil adminwere established in the modeled after those set up in France enough education towns, although it was difficult to find men to staff them. During the time with and 1797, Sonthonax of his mission in 1796 wrote regularly to the local appointed, urging them to spread the officials he had Equality, Prosperity" and to administer republican gospel of "Liberty, the laws fairly. A newspaper was set up to guide the newly named locally printed In a society where the law had officials in their work. in the hands of a small always been an instrument of oppression convince the privileged group, however, it was difficult to their interests. population that the government was now going to defend Accusations of corruption and and the large proportion of the favoritism were common, armies in the island were in population serving in the various chose to. a position to ignore the law whenever they In spite of all these obstacles, there those areas that were no were some signs of progress in longer directly affected Français, the colony's major by warfare. Cap fire that had city, began to recover from the destroyed it in June 1793. By devastating of the burned had early 1797, more than half buildings been rebuilt; in walls had survived the many cases, their stone interiors. The flames, SO that they only needed new roofs and city's streets and public squares were given new names, these obstacles, there those areas that were no were some signs of progress in longer directly affected Français, the colony's major by warfare. Cap fire that had city, began to recover from the destroyed it in June 1793. By devastating of the burned had early 1797, more than half buildings been rebuilt; in walls had survived the many cases, their stone interiors. The flames, SO that they only needed new roofs and city's streets and public squares were given new names, --- Page 97 --- Emancipation in Saint-Domingue, 1793-1798 88 Republican with and designed to inspire the population such as Liberty Equality, white colonist in 1796 wrote, "I saw citirepublican ideals. A returning smelters, ironworkers, zens of all colors doing business as tinsmiths, storekeepers, barrel-makers, shoemakers, carpenters, wagonmakers, loaded with coffee arriving and sO on. I saw thirty to a hundred mules of sugar." This man also day during the harvest, and wagonloads every former slaves on his plantation were keeping up reported that the that their love of liberty went along with production. "They showed me however, that love of work," he wrote. Other observers complained, a asserted their rights and contested the authority the black laborers now in dispute with their employers of the managers. "They are always to them," a disgruntled about how much of the product belongs observer wrote in 1795." withdrawal of the British forces from Despite these difficulties, the the way for the development Saint-Domingue in 1798 appeared to open the central instituof a society unlike any other in the Americas. Slavery, abolished. A former black had been tion of colonial Saint-Domingue, the official head of the French slave, Toussaint Louverture, was now succeeded in ridding himself government in the island. Although he had France, he had by no of white officials sent from of the supervision with his encouragement, whites means created an all-black government: economy, role in Saint-Domingue's continued to play an important positions in the army. Saintwhile free men of color occupied leading the of years of civil Domingue's economy was still suffering from impact The invasion, but its future prospects seemed promising. war and foreign to revive trade with the island, and Americans and the British were eager the basis for a new of independent peasants was laying a population to the United States after the end of its agricultural economy. Compared was woefully poor in social war of independence, Saint-Domingue create institutions such as schools capital," but efforts were under way to from Saintof deputies and local courts. The active participation in France's legislative Domingue, many of them black or of mixed race, committed to assemblies showed that the mother country was genuinely its colonies into with racial distinctions and to integrating doing away world still dominated by monarchical its political system. In an Atlantic which the only other free republic, empires with slave colonies and in the free members ofits the United States, denied political rights even to excepin 1798 formed a remarkable black population, Saint-Domingue for change elsewhere. In tion, and one capable of inspiring movements local courts. The active participation in France's legislative Domingue, many of them black or of mixed race, committed to assemblies showed that the mother country was genuinely its colonies into with racial distinctions and to integrating doing away world still dominated by monarchical its political system. In an Atlantic which the only other free republic, empires with slave colonies and in the free members ofits the United States, denied political rights even to excepin 1798 formed a remarkable black population, Saint-Domingue for change elsewhere. In tion, and one capable of inspiring movements --- Page 98 --- Republican Emancipation in Saint-Domingue, 1793-1798 August 1798, for example, spokesmen for a conspiracy formed by mixedrace artisans in the Brazilian city of Bahia referred to Saint-Domingue in calling for a democratic government based on "freedom, equality, and fraternity"and the end Lofslavery:" On both sides ofthe Atlantic, however, developments soon undermined the prospects for the stabilization ofthe multiracial republican colony that had emerged in Saint-Domingue. --- Page 99 --- Louverture in Power, Toussaint 1798-1801 Sonthonax for France in departure of the French emancipator had become the - the that Toussaint Louverture late 1797 left no doubt In the four years since he had most powerful figure in Saint-Domingue. had defeated the foreign joined the French in 1794, the black general outmaneuveredl both invaders who had threatened the colony and skillfully He now had authorities and his rivals for power in the colony. the French his ideas about how a society without slavery the chance to implement the most extreme example of a - 'slave could be developed in what had been 1801, Toussaint laid the society" in the Americas. In the years from 1798 to and others for what the modern Haitian historian Sabine Manigat basis state," >> a system of centralized authoritarian have called the "Louverturian Toussaint's government that has had a lasting influence on Haiti's destiny." As he tried to experiment in state-building came at a high price, however. freedom of the capable of protecting the create a powerful government himself in caught up in a series of conflicts black population, he found These opponents included his with opponents who resented his authority. the free colored elite, rival André Rigaud and the "anciens libres," formerly They resented the rise of a black man to the colony's top position. who members of the island's' black populaalso camet toinclude many ordinary concrete than his, centering on tion, whose vision of freedom was more self-sufficient farms. land for themselves and establish their right to claim had to defeat a revolt led by one of By, 1801, for the first time, Toussaint took the side of the black population his own officers, General Moïse, who in which whites would Toussaint's effort to create a society and opposed still have a significant position. of the Haitian Revolution, First Edition. Jeremy D. Popkin. A Concise History Published 2012 by Blackwell Publishing Ltd. 0 2012 Jeremy D. Popkin. freedom was more self-sufficient farms. land for themselves and establish their right to claim had to defeat a revolt led by one of By, 1801, for the first time, Toussaint took the side of the black population his own officers, General Moïse, who in which whites would Toussaint's effort to create a society and opposed still have a significant position. of the Haitian Revolution, First Edition. Jeremy D. Popkin. A Concise History Published 2012 by Blackwell Publishing Ltd. 0 2012 Jeremy D. Popkin. --- Page 100 --- Toussaint Louverture in Power, 1798-1801 91 The Dilemmas Facing Toussaint Louverture Even as he used increasingly violent against these means to maintain his authority challenges from within the also became increasingly colony, Toussaint Louverture outside: not from the British concerned about the danger of an assault from from France, the or the Spanish, whom he had defeated, but country whose interests he had years when Toussaint was defended. In the same another successful building his regime in general with political skills and Saint-Domingue, Napoleon Bonaparte, had assumed great ambitions, Napoleon made it clear that he did power in France, From the start, able colony escape from not intend to let France's most valuthe mother had played the game of country's control. Toussaint, who ble republican politics SO skillfully under the divided and unstagovernment of the Directory, could not strategy to cope with the new French ruler. find a successful a plan, Toussaint's actions Even though he denied such convinced meant to make Saint-Domingue Napoleon that the black leader conflict between Toussaint's independent. By the end of 1801, a nascent state in the Napoleonic France had become inevitable. Caribbean and IfToussaint Louverture frequently felt ures to impose his authority and compelled to take strong meashe was convinced that the freedom destroy his opponents, it was because remained vulnerable to threats the former slaves had won after 1793 began, Saint-Domingue from the outside world. As the year 1798 conflict between remained a key theater of the trans-Atlantic made revolutionary France and Britain. To defend during the revolution, Toussaint realized the gains international arena, that he had to enter the regard dealing not only with the French, who continued Saint-Domingue. as their possession, but with to the representatives of the United the British and with Domingue constituted States, whose involvement in Saintthe first of what would tionsi in Caribbean affairs. The former become many interventhe interests of black slave now. had to understand how governments in London and to take advantage oft them to Washington and calculate of the population he protect his own power and the interests the game of international governed. At the same time as he learned to play his politics, Toussaint also knew that keep eye on events in Paris. The weak and he had to ernment oft the Directory was unable to devote unstable republican govDomingue in its last years, but in November much attention to Saint1799 it was overthrown by become many interventhe interests of black slave now. had to understand how governments in London and to take advantage oft them to Washington and calculate of the population he protect his own power and the interests the game of international governed. At the same time as he learned to play his politics, Toussaint also knew that keep eye on events in Paris. The weak and he had to ernment oft the Directory was unable to devote unstable republican govDomingue in its last years, but in November much attention to Saint1799 it was overthrown by --- Page 101 --- 92 Toussaint Louverture in Power, 1798-1801 The war with Britain that Napoleon inherited kept Napoleon Bonaparte. for several years, but him from intervening directly in Saint-Domingue permitted, the new Toussaint understood that, when circumstances control over his French ruler would surely do his utmost to reassert insisted Although Napoleon country's most valuable overseas territory. slavery, he clearly had little publicly that he had no intention of restoring freedom; the new constisympathy with abstract notions about human of basic rights that tution he drew up for France dropped the declaration constitufeature of France's three earlier revolutionary had been a major threat from France, Saint-Domingue's tions. Preparing to meet a possible became Toussaint's constant preoccupation. supposed protector, Hédouville and the British ascent to power was still unforeseeAt the beginning of 1798, Napoleon's Louverture were dealing with able, and the main issues facing Toussaint General Joseph of the French government, a new representative in March 1798, and d'Hédouville, who arrived in Saint-Domingue of of the west coast. The appointment ending the British occupation the rebellious territory of Hédouville, known for his success in pacifying in France, was meant to signal the French government's the Vendée growing power. He had originally determination to rein in Toussaint's deputies elected to the been named at the moment when the right-wing but the Directory French legislature in April 1797 were in the ascendant, had been defeated maintained his mission even after his political allies instructions d'état of fructidor in September. Hédouville's in the coup rights of white plantation-owners directed him to restore the property restart a been classified as émigrés and to production, who had not him in conflict both with the new owners mandate that was bound to put former slaves whose labor and the who had taken over the plantations was necessary to make them function. by disembarking in the Hédouville alarmed Toussaint Louverture rather than coming directly to Cap Français Spanish part of the island, his authoritarian personality, where Toussaint was in control. Despite the realized that he had no means to effectively oppose Hédouville soon another French officer who had been black leader. François Kerverseau, arrived Hédouville to in the colony for several years, warned the newly with Toussaint. "With him, you can do anything; stay on good terms the plantations was necessary to make them function. by disembarking in the Hédouville alarmed Toussaint Louverture rather than coming directly to Cap Français Spanish part of the island, his authoritarian personality, where Toussaint was in control. Despite the realized that he had no means to effectively oppose Hédouville soon another French officer who had been black leader. François Kerverseau, arrived Hédouville to in the colony for several years, warned the newly with Toussaint. "With him, you can do anything; stay on good terms --- Page 102 --- Toussaint Louverture in Power, 1798-1801 93 Kerverseau wrote. 2 The largely black without him, you are powerless," effort to reclaim statearmy was loyal to Toussaint, and Hédouville's officers further alienthat Toussaint had given to his owned plantations undercut Hédouville by dispatching an agent ated the military. Toussaint trouble in the colony. At the same to France to accuse him of stirring up to issue a set of regulations time, however, Toussaint allowed Hédouville of three the former slaves to continue working for a minimum share of obligating in exchange for a one-quarter years on their former plantations, similar to the rules Toussaint the profits. These regulations were quite but Toussaint was able to himself had imposed in the West Province, blaming the French from the black fieldworkers by deflect complaints rumors that Hédouville's general for the measure, and even encouraging rules were a first step aimed at restoring slavery. governed by the free Although Hédouville found the southern territory administered than the colored military strongman André Rigaud better were still wary island under Toussaint's control, the French parts of the for the massacre of whites in Cayes in 1796 of Rigaud, who was blamed authority than his and who seemed even less respectful of metropolitan military officer well black rival. Colonel Charles Vincent, a French the end of 1797, had with the colony who went to France at acquainted had established "a horrible and tyranwarned the Directory that Rigaud thisownwill"F Furthermore, nical snairsatrceatad and Toussaint - who had met throughout the summer of 1798 Rigaud to drive the for the first time in July 1798 - were cooperating was personally At the same time, Toussaint British out of their last strongholds. British commander, General negotiations with the new conducting British withdrawal from the island. Having Thomas Maitland, about a was costing them too decided that the campaign in Saint-Domingue of success, the British men and too much money, with little promise many to create further friction between deliberately exploited these negotiations himself to Toussaint Toussaint and the French government. By addressing the black general to rather than to Hédouville, Maitland encouraged interests. superior and to promote his own ignore his supposed reached between Toussaint Louverture Thetermsofthe final agreement 1798 were calculated to cause and General Thomas Maitland in August Stories circulated to Toussaint's relations with Hédouville. further damage led that the British had offered to support an independent government Toussaint and even to help him proclaim himself king. by Toussaint, not reliable allies among other things, recognized that the British were By addressing the black general to rather than to Hédouville, Maitland encouraged interests. superior and to promote his own ignore his supposed reached between Toussaint Louverture Thetermsofthe final agreement 1798 were calculated to cause and General Thomas Maitland in August Stories circulated to Toussaint's relations with Hédouville. further damage led that the British had offered to support an independent government Toussaint and even to help him proclaim himself king. by Toussaint, not reliable allies among other things, recognized that the British were --- Page 103 --- Toussaint Louverture in Power, 1798-1801 they were determined to prevent him from sailors might spread creating his own navy, whose dangerous ideas to their own colonies falling under their control he maintained and to avoid but he did not hesitate to defythe a degree of loyalty to France, of the treaty. Whereas official metropolitan government on the details colonists who had French republican policy banned white Toussaint fought alongside the British from French agreed to let those who wished to remain territory, tinue managing their to do so, and to conwithout plantations. In conducting his own regard to the wishes of the diplomacy Toussaint was following the Directory government in Paris, shown a similar spirit of example of Napoleon Bonaparte, who had 1796-7. The Directory had independence during his campaign in Italy in reacted by sending expedition to conquer Bonaparte on a perilous that the ambitious Egypt; some of the government's leaders hoped general would not come back. by the Atlantic Ocean, Toussaint Separated from France Strengthened by his Louverture was even harder to control. Toussaint agreement with the British and the Louverture decided to rid himself Americans, presence. The black general was alarmed felideundksinommnient the city of by an outbreak of violence in clashed with Fort-Dauphin, east of Cap Français, in which white a unit commanded by General troops be the prelude to a French Moise; he feared that it might The incident set off attempt to land major forces in the island. side around an insurrection of the former slaves in the Cap Français, which Toussaint himself countryinstigate. Toussaint insisted that this may have helped to the French representative movement could not be pacified if remained in 1798, Hédouville left the colony, Saint-Domingue. On 23 October pose French acknowledging that his effort to reimgovernment control had failed. Unable to limit Toussaint Louverture's to do anything else general from claiming total power, he tried to prevent the black officially freeing André control in Saint-Domingue by writing a letter Province, from Rigaud, the military strongman in the South anyl legal subordination to Toussaint. historians have often blamed this Subsequent Haitian soon broke out between maneuver for the violent conflict that Toussaint and Rigaud, but the Rigaud, a representative of the mixed-race struggle between sought to establish its free colored class that had own dominance the decade, and Toussaint, who claimed throughout revolutionary the population, had to represent the black majority of in the final deeper roots, even if the two men had cooperated campaign against the British. action showed that the only chance the Nevertheless, Hédouville's French had of undermining soon broke out between maneuver for the violent conflict that Toussaint and Rigaud, but the Rigaud, a representative of the mixed-race struggle between sought to establish its free colored class that had own dominance the decade, and Toussaint, who claimed throughout revolutionary the population, had to represent the black majority of in the final deeper roots, even if the two men had cooperated campaign against the British. action showed that the only chance the Nevertheless, Hédouville's French had of undermining --- Page 104 --- Toussaint Louverture in Power, 1798-1801 95 civil conflict in the colony. To Toussaint's supremacy was to encourage Toussaint replaced of a completel break with France, avoid the appearance member of the Third Civil Hédouville with Philippe Roume, the only him from the city of Commission still in Saint-Domingue, recalling for the French takeowhere he had been sent to prepare Santo Domingo authorized by the 1795 treaty of Basel. ver of the Spanish colony Roume was in no Surrounded by a black population loyal to Toussaint, position to stand in the black general's way. with the British, defied French policy in his negotiations Having demonstrated his independence even further by Toussaint Louverture with the United States. Since 1796, the establishing friendly relations had been locked in an undeclared "QuasiAmerican republic and Francel Yankee merchant vessels as War" caused by the French decision to treat of them based in the fair game subject to seizure by privateers, many continued to visit SaintCaribbean. Despite this risk, American traders made up commanded by colonial products Domingue; the high prices In 1798, when they suffered if their ships were captured. for the losses demanded bribes from the corrupt French foreign minister Talleyrand settlement of the sent to try to negotiate a American representatives "XYZ affair" because the report conflict - a scandal known as the referred to the three President Adams sent to Congress about the matter John Adams intermediaries involved as X, Y, and Z - President French by imposing an embargo on all and his supporters decided to retaliate Toussaint Louverture American trade with France and its colonies. case, Americans to treat Saint-Domingue as a special encouraged the to the United States bearing however. He sent a personal representative be assured, Mr. President, that to Adams, that "You can a letter promising and security in the ports of the Republic Americans will find protection from the southern states and St. Domingue." >4 Although many legislators blacks in Saintfeared that any official dealings with the emancipated slaves, in February would inspire uprisings among their own Domingue to the trade embargo policy 1799 Congress passed an amendment French empire that were not authorizing trade with any parts of the directly involved in the war. "Toussaint's Clause," recognized that this measure, known as Everyone to the black general to defy the French governamounted to an invitation sent to Saint-Domingue, American representatives ment." Toussaintandthe in which Toussaint Edward Stevens, promptly negotiated an agreement by vessels based promised to end raids on American shipping Louverture in February would inspire uprisings among their own Domingue to the trade embargo policy 1799 Congress passed an amendment French empire that were not authorizing trade with any parts of the directly involved in the war. "Toussaint's Clause," recognized that this measure, known as Everyone to the black general to defy the French governamounted to an invitation sent to Saint-Domingue, American representatives ment." Toussaintandthe in which Toussaint Edward Stevens, promptly negotiated an agreement by vessels based promised to end raids on American shipping Louverture --- Page 105 --- Toussaint Louverture in Power, 1798-1801 from the trade embargo. The in the colony in return for an exemption Toussaint assuring them that British also joined in this agreement, with that he would not make any they could trade with Saint-Domingue and colony trouble among the slaves in Britain's neighboring effort to stir up hoped to incite a slave uprisof Jamaica, whereas the French government Roume did manage to send ing there. When the French representative Toussaint betrayed the man to Jamaica to try to start a revolt, an agent and him. Secretly, the British and to the British, who arrested hanged would be undesirable to let agreed that it American governments state, but they both Toussaint make himself ruler of an independent French to that the fear of his doing SO would put pressure on the hoped make peace with them. The Conflict with Rigaud from the United States, Toussaint Louverture was now Assured of supplies his most serious rival for prepared to settle accounts with André Rigaud, had dominated Ever since 1793, Rigaud and his armyl power in the colony. Like Toussaint, Rigaud had defied the Saint-Domingue's South Province. relations with the British, French officials in the island and established weak and divided after remain who were happy to see Saint-Domingue it. Rigaud's method of governthey decided to end their effort to conquer both men had built up ment was not very different from Toussaint's: the mass of the black military regimes that relied on force to compel difference between population to work on the plantations. The crucial man of mixed them was one of race or caste: Rigaud was a light-skinned the of and his regime appeared to amount to substitution racial ancestry, former white ruling class. In February 1799, a mulatto elite for the which he accused the former free Toussaint gave a menacing speech in He denounced men ofcolor of slaves who had been otesinmt of the "Swiss," the armed black the mistreatment and accused Rigaud of refusing to betrayed by the men of color in 1791, skin. As tension mounted accept his authority because of his black that he and Toussaint, Rigaud wrote to Roume, insisting between Rigaud than his rival and protesting that "my crime was more loyal to France won't bow head before the idol" is - that I my when some of Rigaud's men Open warfare broke out in June 1799, Louverture's tried to retake the town of Petit-Goâve, which Toussaint and accused Rigaud of refusing to betrayed by the men of color in 1791, skin. As tension mounted accept his authority because of his black that he and Toussaint, Rigaud wrote to Roume, insisting between Rigaud than his rival and protesting that "my crime was more loyal to France won't bow head before the idol" is - that I my when some of Rigaud's men Open warfare broke out in June 1799, Louverture's tried to retake the town of Petit-Goâve, which Toussaint --- Page 106 --- Toussaint Louverture in Power, 1798-1801 97 Toussaint's army had a significant advantage in forces had occupied. better The smaller force was initially organized. numbers, but Rigaud's commented that Rigaud's "infantry are American agent Edward Stevens whereas Toussaint's ,andhis scavalrythel besti int thed colony" well disciplined, want of Nevertheless, at the start of the war, was "in everything" will army, Toussaint had obtained supplies, "the contest Stevens predicted, once' of the black short" since Toussaint could count on the support be but of the whites, who resented the pretensions of population and of most proved called "mulattoes." >6 As Stevens had foreseen, Rigaud those they With relentless determination, the no match for Toussaint as a leader. his rival's strongholds. He was black general drove his forces to conquer race war; some careful not to convert the conflict into a straightforward forces, while others mixed-race officers continued to serve in Toussaint's off: relations with the United States paid remained neutral. Toussaint's in the South Province, armed American ships blockaded the ports depriving Rigaud's forces of supplies. knives," was fought with great The conflict, known as the "war of the and killed with on both sides; captives were often tortured brutality may have starved to death during bayonets, and as many as 4,000 people of Jacmel, where a future the four-month siege of the southern port Pétion, commanded the Haiti, Alexandre president of] post-revolutionary) Toussaint insisted that he was only defense. In his public proclamations, the entire group of men of mixed fighting Rigaud and his supporters, not to his side. He to protect all those who came over race, and promised violence used by his main field comprofessed to be shocked by the what he had General Dessalines. When Dessalines reported mander, responded, "I told you to weed the field, but done, Toussaint supposedly >7 July 1800, Rigaud was forced tore everything out by the roots." By had you and flee to France. Although Toussaint to abandon the struggle remained numerous, especially prevailed, former supporters of Rigaud Toussaint and Dessalines in the south. Their lingering resentment against French when they reoccupied would lead some of them to welcome the the colony in 1802. Toussaint Louverture Builds his State Louverture's victory in the conflict with Rigaud eliminated Toussaint Saint-Domingue. The period from the last resistance to his authorityin forced tore everything out by the roots." By had you and flee to France. Although Toussaint to abandon the struggle remained numerous, especially prevailed, former supporters of Rigaud Toussaint and Dessalines in the south. Their lingering resentment against French when they reoccupied would lead some of them to welcome the the colony in 1802. Toussaint Louverture Builds his State Louverture's victory in the conflict with Rigaud eliminated Toussaint Saint-Domingue. The period from the last resistance to his authorityin --- Page 107 --- 98 Toussaint Louverture in Power, 1798-1801 mid-1800 to the end of 1801 was the actions during this interval height of his power, and his society he imagined for give us our clearest picture of the sort of The the emancipated blacks of principles of the "Louverturian Saint-Domingue. by many state," to use the phrase contemporary Haitian adopted hensive labor code scholars, were laid out in the Toussaint issued in October 1800, in compreconstitution he had drawn in the colonial up 1801, and in his lamations. The fundamental speeches and procassertion of justification on which Toussaint rested his authority was his defense of the racial hierarchy in abolition of slavery and characteristics Saint-Domingue. These had been the of the all-pervading Toussaint declared them pre-revolutionary colonial social order, but explicitly announced that entirely eliminated. The 1801 constitution vitude is abolished "there can be no slaves in this serwithin it forever" and that "all territory; color, are eligible for all positions." men, whatever their however, the possibility that The constitution did foresee, duced to new captives from Africa might be introSaint-Domingue to restore the the population losses caused revolutionary wars. They were to enjoy by would be assigned to work on the island's legal freedom, but they In the context of the time, the abolition of plantations. leges were radically slavery and of racial privirevolutionaries of 1776 revolutionary had propositions. The white American freedom for themselves seen no contradiction between and maintaining demanding that did abolish slavery; even the northern states slavery after 1780 usually rights of black residents or tried to force them imposed restrictions on the tan France, the granting of to emigrate. In metropoliaffected citizenship rights to black residents in only a tiny minority, whereas in whelming majority of the population Saint-Domingue the overnouveaux libres, the black former consisted of former slaves. The this radical change, but slaves, were the main beneficiaries of ai new black privileged class. Toussaint Louverture's intent was not to create had consistently. From the start ofhis public career, Toussaint advocated a society in which of mixed race would coexist blacks, whites, and people on a basis of equality. The equality meant that the anciens libres, the promise of racial and the whites who remained former free people of color, including the in Saint-Domingue also retained right to occupy official positions. Indeed, rights, army officer corps was dominated by blacks, although the and men of color to most key Toussaint appointed whites the point of view of the positions in his civil administration. From newly freed blacks, however, this meant that a society in which of mixed race would coexist blacks, whites, and people on a basis of equality. The equality meant that the anciens libres, the promise of racial and the whites who remained former free people of color, including the in Saint-Domingue also retained right to occupy official positions. Indeed, rights, army officer corps was dominated by blacks, although the and men of color to most key Toussaint appointed whites the point of view of the positions in his civil administration. From newly freed blacks, however, this meant that --- Page 108 --- Toussaint Louverture in Power, 1798-1801 99 continued to occupy a disproportionmembers of these minority groups number of privileged positions in the new society. ately large insisted that freedom and equality Although Toussaint Louverture in Saint-Domingue, his the fundamental bases of the new society were different from that of the French revoludefinition of freedom was very consists in being able to tionaries who had declared in 1789 that "liberty Toussaint's view, that does not harm another person." In for do anything the right to be idle, or even to decide freedom did not give people In his field labor regulathemselves what kind of occupation to pursue. is the foundation tions of October 1800, he insisted that "agriculture Everyone who and wealth, the source of arts and industry." of commerce of their having an occupation or profescould not "produce the proofs in to be employed sion sufficient to gain their livelihood" was principle to soldiers, insistin the fields. Toussaint compared agricultural laborers else be subject to punishing that they had to perform their duties or without were "forbidden to quit their respective plantations ment. They or to try to >> either to seek easier jobs in the towns a lawful permission," in the mountains." The French emancipators establish private farms similar restrictions in their Sonthonax and Polverel had incorporated had had very few means for abolition decrees in 1793 and 1794, but they in better them. Thanks to his army, Toussaint was a position enforcing to try to impose his will on the population. of Saint-Domingue were In addition to ensuring that all inhabitants officially at compelled to work, Toussaint Louverture was determined, he was strict code of morality on them. In this respect least, to impose a officials who had preceded him. His than the French more conservative "to attend to their duty towards their labor regulations ordered parents morals, in the Christian religion, children" by instructing them "in good trade. and the fear of God," and by making sure theylearned a productive that children Rather than being sent to school in the towns, he intended that work in the fields from an early age. Recognizing should be set to men than among women, he the war had caused more casualties among numerous unmarried about the behavior of the colony's was concerned cities who "are entirely devoted to their those in the women, especially nothing useful," as he complained appearance and want to do absolutely The constitution he issued issued in November 1801. in a proclamation the purity of morals, and in 1801 praised marriage, which "encourages and legal advantages for promised special protection for faithful spouses Although the French children born to properly married parents. --- Page 109 --- 100 Toussaint Louverture in Power, 1798-1801 sn - Figure 4.1 Toussaint Like all of the existing Louverture: Chef des Noirs black pictures of insurgés de general on horseback Toussaint Saint-Domingue. Nevertheless, this was done by an artist Louverture, who had this engraving of the black leader dramatic depiction never seen his made on all those who captures the strong subject. Source: Courtesy of the John met or heard about him. impression that the Carter Brown Library at Brown University. government had officially tion banned it in legalized divorce in 1792, Toussaint's The Saint-Domingue constituarmy was the dominant Even after the end of the "war institution in the many more of the knives," Louverturian state. men under arms than the colonial Toussaint Louverture kept regime ever had. In part, ramatic depiction never seen his made on all those who captures the strong subject. Source: Courtesy of the John met or heard about him. impression that the Carter Brown Library at Brown University. government had officially tion banned it in legalized divorce in 1792, Toussaint's The Saint-Domingue constituarmy was the dominant Even after the end of the "war institution in the many more of the knives," Louverturian state. men under arms than the colonial Toussaint Louverture kept regime ever had. In part, --- Page 110 --- Toussaint Louverture in Power, 1798-1801 military expedition, but it this was a reaction to the threat of a French to take the place reflected the fact that Toussaint relied on the army also officers were appointed as district comof a civil administration. Army agriculture by every means in your manders and ordered to "promote that they would share in the power"; in exchange, they were promised constitution of 1801 called for an profits of the restored plantations. The of local adminto approve laws and outlined a system elected assembly after French institutions, but these istration and law courts modeled Toussaint would have clauses were never put into effect. Whether balance the of the create civil institutions that could power managed to longer remains uncertain. army if he had stayed in power was the general center of Toussaint Louverture's new society At the his continued rule as the only himself (Figure 4.1). He clearly regarded 1791 would changes carried out since guarantee that the revolutionary that, "in consideration of the last. The constitution of 1801 specified in the most critical cirservices he has rendered the colony, inhabitimportant revolution, and on the request of its thankful cumstances of the to him for the rest of his ants, the reins [of government] are confided his own successor. life." He was also authorized to name glorious of his authority, Toussaint was conUnwilling to risk delegating any to another, trying stantly on the move from one part of Saint-Domingue the entire territory. to make it appear that he was personally supervising or staying, where never knew what he was doing, if he was leaving "One whence he had come," the French general Pamphile he had gone, from 10 Wherever he went, he insisted on being received De La Croix wrote. ruler. Aware that he had accumulated many with the honors due to a during the had to have him assassinated enemies - Rigaud attempted under his own supervi- "war of the knives" > - he ate only food prepared that might have made sion and avoided showing himself from windows him a target for gunshots. of the black leader at the height It is ironic that all of our descriptions of whom were hostile to him. of his power come from whites, many remained in Saint-Domingue Some of the French army officers who admire his talents. Colonel departure did come to after Hédouville's who worked closely with him, wrote to France Vincent, an army engineer and indefatigable man of whom we that "Toussaint . is the most active that he is found wherever can form an idea; we may say, with truth, Another French instructions or danger render his presence necessary" Ramel, praised him for appointing only officer, General Jean-Pierre to him. of his power come from whites, many remained in Saint-Domingue Some of the French army officers who admire his talents. Colonel departure did come to after Hédouville's who worked closely with him, wrote to France Vincent, an army engineer and indefatigable man of whom we that "Toussaint . is the most active that he is found wherever can form an idea; we may say, with truth, Another French instructions or danger render his presence necessary" Ramel, praised him for appointing only officer, General Jean-Pierre --- Page 111 --- Toussaint Louverture in Power, 1798-1801 12 He was said to "honest, moral, and intelligent men" as administrators. secretaries, and those dictate more than a hundred letters a day to his to express with his ability who observed him working were impressed substance of his addresses into a himself. "I watched him condense the sentences, and words, rework awkward or misunderstood few spoken turns him with their deal with several secretaries who took presenting doctor who lived in Michel-Etienne Descourtilz, a young white versions, recalled. "He showed that he was Saint-Domingue for several years, forecast by Raynal," the worthy of being considered the natural genius Histoire des deux Indes, author of the best-selling pre-revolutionary liberator if slavery was not which had predicted the emergence of a black reformed." in one of the major cities, Toussaint Louverture When he was residing etiquette on their parheld official receptions and imposed a rigorous hall where his guests had ticipants. "When he appeared in the grand without General De La Croix wrote, "everyone, gathered in advance," that they maintain a highly distinction of sex, had to rise. He required address him with attitude and especially liked the whites to ladies, respectful He wanted the women, especially the white decent manners.. church, and their bosoms had to be to dress as if they were going to former plantation covered." Admitting whites, including completely former master, to these gatherings was a way owners and even his own understanding among Toussaint's policy of promoting of emphasizing about who was now running the races, but he left his guests in no doubt wanted to have any chance things. Whites were dependent on him if they Descourtilz was one of control of their properties. Doctor of recovering "nasty habit of sometimes making many who suffered from Toussaint's the of listening to owner travel a long distance, on promise a plantation had him brought to his lodging, of disappearing him; then, after having and without saying a word . disappearing, through a hidden doorway situation. He treated such leaving the suppliant in the most embarrassing noted that Toussaint > othersalso sorts of things as a game: Descourtilzande Catholic mass whenever made a great show of religious piety, attending the functions of the clergy," he could. "He often interjected himself into the recalled, "interrupting the curé's sermon, haranguing Descourtilz Descourtilz was one of many observers congregation and his soldiers." he the strict morality preached, who doubted that Toussaint practiced the end of each service he gave private however;the doctor noted that "at and with the doors closed."s audiences to favored women, one on one game: Descourtilzande Catholic mass whenever made a great show of religious piety, attending the functions of the clergy," he could. "He often interjected himself into the recalled, "interrupting the curé's sermon, haranguing Descourtilz Descourtilz was one of many observers congregation and his soldiers." he the strict morality preached, who doubted that Toussaint practiced the end of each service he gave private however;the doctor noted that "at and with the doors closed."s audiences to favored women, one on one --- Page 112 --- Toussaint Louverture in Power, 1798-1801 The Life of the Black Population Louverture's relations with the It is much harder to assess Toussaint victories and his defense of the island's black population. His military of support. "The solblacks' freedom certainly assured him a reservoir being, and the field-negroes prosdiers revered him as an extraordinary General De La Croix trated themselves before him as if he were divine," dishe added, the soldiers were subject to rigorous wrote. Nevertheless, officers and soldiers were kept in an obedience cipline, and "the junior Toussaint allowed the differing little from slavery." In compensation, when he the fieldworkers. "A soldier was always right soldiers to bully De La Croix observed. The harsh complained against a black civilian," the rural population that Toussaint sought to impose on regulations blacks, as periodic revolts in the countryundoubtedly alienated many that the blacks working Doctor Descourtilz was sure side demonstrated. harassed by any soldier who comes on the farms, "constantly if they could2"16 Even those blacks would throw off the yoke along . were often treated demeanwho were admitted to Toussaint's receptions embarrassing the blacks ingly, according to De La Croix. "He enjoyed to asking them questions designed who attended these audiences" by [them] for their ignoreveal their lack of education and "reproaching that Toussaint was often There is little doubt rance and incapacity"" more feared than loved. their own lives, the blacks in the When they were able to pursue and villages on the countryside organized themselves in family groups that had little and created the basis of a new society former plantations Louverture's vision of a militarized machine in common with Toussaint careful observer in spite of his Descourtilz, a for agricultural production. family groups in a remote village gathovert racial prejudices, described "some talking, the older ones in ering outside their huts in the evenings, kind of calenda song, while the an African language, others singing some with dried COW patties, around and keep the fire going little ones crawl Young men would play the whose smoke drives away the mosquitos. and the women the African instrument we know as the banjo, banza, Descourtilz was critical of would dance. From his European perspective, he noted, treated women. When they went to market, the way black men their wives walked, carrying heavyl loads men rode the family mule, while work to the women, their heads. Although they often left agricultural on while the an African language, others singing some with dried COW patties, around and keep the fire going little ones crawl Young men would play the whose smoke drives away the mosquitos. and the women the African instrument we know as the banjo, banza, Descourtilz was critical of would dance. From his European perspective, he noted, treated women. When they went to market, the way black men their wives walked, carrying heavyl loads men rode the family mule, while work to the women, their heads. Although they often left agricultural on --- Page 113 --- Toussaint Louverture in Power, 1798-1801 societies from which many of them as was common in the West African often skilled in hunting Descourtilz noted that the men were had come, talented craftsmen, who decorated the and handling animals. Some were made with taste and propots and baskets in their houses with "designs In the absence of without the aid of a ruler or a compass. portion, healers and midwives cared for the population's health, whites, black folk witness a vodou religious ceremony, and Descourtilz was allowed to sacred snake they were worshipwhere he repaid his hosts by killing the Although it in order, he claimed, to cure them of their superstition.. like ing, Toussaint's official policy to encourage white plantation-owners) was of their plantations, the blacks Descourtilz to resume the management Instead of dictating to their workfound ways to sabotage these efforts. blacks to share some of their force, whites were now dependent on the black coachman took him on with them. Even when an unskilled lost, crops the countryside and became thoroughly a terrifying ride through 18 Whatever he or Toussaint intended, Descourtilz did not dare complain. would not be forced back into the black population of Saint-Domingue former white masters or to obedience, either to their a life of disciplined had risen from their ranks. the black leader who The Rupture with Napoleon Bonaparte's seizure of power in France By early 1800, news of Napoleon Saint-Domingue. It soon became the previous November had reached the country's policy clear that the new French ruler meant to change reasserted that the toward its colonies. Although the Directory had in its law of 12 nivôse emancipation ofthe slaves was an official principle of Sonthonax 1798), Toussaint Louverture's expulsion Year VI (1 January policies had turned many French and his increasingly authoritarian to France, Sonthonax himself republicans against him. After his return citing denounced Toussaint as an agent of the countereolutionaries from with the British, and even some ofthel black deputies his agreement him, urging the government to support Saint-Domingue turned against of the Friends of the Blacks Rigaud instead. The members oft the Society officials founded in 1798 to and the Colonies, a group of politicians and of the surviving interest in colonial affairs that included many the promote of the Friends of the Blacks, including members ofthe earlier Society critics of Toussaint. This division abbé Grégoire, was dominated by agent of the countereolutionaries from with the British, and even some ofthel black deputies his agreement him, urging the government to support Saint-Domingue turned against of the Friends of the Blacks Rigaud instead. The members oft the Society officials founded in 1798 to and the Colonies, a group of politicians and of the surviving interest in colonial affairs that included many the promote of the Friends of the Blacks, including members ofthe earlier Society critics of Toussaint. This division abbé Grégoire, was dominated by --- Page 114 --- Toussaint Louverture in Power, 1798-1801 made it easier for Napoleon to adopt a new among the republicans direction. Constitution of the Year VIII (1799) that The hastily approved did not include a declaration of Napoleon imposed on the country constitutional feature of the three earlier revolutionary rights, a key the colonies was its article 91, which documents. Its one reference to "special laws," in would henceforth be governed by specified that they assume that they would other words, their populations could no longer France. That the special have the same rights as those of metropolitan became clear when Napoleon laws"in the colonies might include slavery law of 1794 in officially abandoned any effort to apply the emancipation had Indian Ocean island colonies, whose white colonists France's distant attempt to carry out abolition in successfully resisted the Directory's certain about what to do in the 1796. Napoleon may not have been SO had been abolished, however. In a proclamation colonies where slavery in December 1799, he assured issued to the "citizens of Saint-Domingue"? of the liberty and equality of the population that "the sacred principles were blacks will never be attacked or modified." Three representatives the in to the colony, and, sent to bring the news of the change government Blacks, rememother things, to see that the motto, "Courageous among recognizes your liberty and the equality ber that only the French people of all of its militia on the battle flags of your rights," was embroidered angrily rejected this proposal, units. Toussaint Louverture, however, because we are the strongest. telling Colonel Vincent, "We are free today and the Ile Bourbon: we [Napoleon] maintains slavery in Martinique >19 will also be enslaved when he becomes the strongest:" intentions were a Toussaint Louverture's suspicions about Napoleon's that the new French ruler had made to placate reaction to several gestures Former colonial officials from the colonists in France. the pro-slavery to key positions in the navy minpre-revolutionary days were appointed were allowed to publicly istry, and former slaveowners and slavetraders had decided defend thei institution. Iti is not clear, however, that Napoleon all French colonies had to have the same policy from the outset that 1800, he had his newly appointed regarding slavery. In late 1799 and early the views of a wide range minister of the navy, Alexandre Forfait, solicit there. Some of interested in the colonies about future policy of people for the reimposition of slavery, in order to the responses argued strongly but others, like the former plantationrestore the colony's economy, taken in 1794 was irreversible. owner Paul Alliot, thought that the step . Iti is not clear, however, that Napoleon all French colonies had to have the same policy from the outset that 1800, he had his newly appointed regarding slavery. In late 1799 and early the views of a wide range minister of the navy, Alexandre Forfait, solicit there. Some of interested in the colonies about future policy of people for the reimposition of slavery, in order to the responses argued strongly but others, like the former plantationrestore the colony's economy, taken in 1794 was irreversible. owner Paul Alliot, thought that the step --- Page 115 --- Toussaint Louverture in Power, 1798-1801 their freedom, are free, it isi important that they enjoy "Since the negroes be he wrote. The participants in that they work, and that they paid," of how to deal advice on the question this debate also gave conflicting official from the southern Saintwith Toussaint Louverture. A French for having "openly Domingue city of Cayes denounced the black general while Colonel of revolt against the French republic," raised the standard to report on the situVincent, one of the three agents sent by Napoleon then claimed that Toussaint, who was preoccupied ation in the colony, remained loyal to France, although he was with the war against Rigaud, did not support his effort to put baffled that the French government "Toussaint, I repeat, is the only down the free colored general's revolt. necessary for the govone who can still save everything, it is absolutely in him. He will do ernment to give him strong proof of its confidence is lost if things good if he is properly handled; everything the greatest done otherwise," >) Vincent warned." are Louverture Prepares for War Toussaint could not take any decisive action about the În the short run, Napoleon France was still at war with Britain, whose colonies in the Caribbean: expedition impossible. made the sending of any substantial military of navy Louverture did not remain idle. The news In the meantime, Toussaint the "war of the knives"; it Napoleon's ascension reached him during that there his determination to make sure could only have strengthened whom the French could recruit as an was no rival leader in the island Toussaint militaristic tone of the labor regulations ally. The strongly his conviction that the population of issued in October 1800 reflected all its efforts to defending the Saint-Domingue might soon have to turn the Spanish this time, Toussaint had also decided to occupy colony. By in the east of the island of Hispaniola. territory of Santo Domingo its to France in 1795, in the Although Spain had agreed to cede colony taken place, and the of Basel, the transfer of control had never Rather than treaty authorities had continued to govern the region. had Spanish take control of Santo Domingo, the French government rushing to realizing that it might be to its decided not to press the issue, perhaps not under the control of advantage to have a part of the island that was land Louverture and where French troops could unopposed, Toussaint Hédouville had done in 1798. For the same reason, Toussaint as the agent colony taken place, and the of Basel, the transfer of control had never Rather than treaty authorities had continued to govern the region. had Spanish take control of Santo Domingo, the French government rushing to realizing that it might be to its decided not to press the issue, perhaps not under the control of advantage to have a part of the island that was land Louverture and where French troops could unopposed, Toussaint Hédouville had done in 1798. For the same reason, Toussaint as the agent --- Page 116 --- Toussaint Louverture in Power, 1798-1801 the Spanish territory under his rule. As himself was determined to bring incidents in which black women and for his action, he cited a pretext from the French part ofthe island and sold children had been kidnapped French commissioner Roume as slaves in the Spanish colony. When the Toussaint had him put under refused to authorize Toussaint's move, house arrest in the remote country town of Dondon. Louverture dispatched At the beginning of January 1801, Toussaint commanded of 20,000 men to take Santo Domingo. His forces, an army General Moïse, easily defeated the small by his trusted subordinate the laws in effect in the rest of the Spanish army. Toussaint extended the freedom of the 25,000 island to the Spanish territory, proclaiming measure was fully impleit is not clear that this slaves there - although appointments to the mixedmented - and opening access to government half of the total population. He which amounted to race population, economic development of the region, which promised to encourage the than the French colony, had been thinly settled and much less prosperous inhabitants; in January and his policies were welcomed by many of the he received a when he visited the capital city of Santo Domingo, well 1802, 21 The news of Toussaint's initiative was not tumultuous reception." underlined the black general's alarming tendency received in France; it for French policy. Toussaint to take his own decisions, without regard of his action only after compounded his offense by notifying Napoleon announced that he it had been carried out, in a letter in which he also of the officers promotions to some had, on his own authority, given Napoleon did not even respond who had participated in the operation. to send his own military Toussaint's letter, but when he was preparing to later in the year, he issued a decree stating expedition to Saint-Domingue colony carried out by Toussaint is that "the takeover of the Spanish hereby nullified?" >22 Louverture's occupation of Santo Even more serious than Toussaint for the colony of SaintDomingo was his decision to have a constitution with the French governDomingue drawn up, without any consultation assembly had taken a 4.2). When the white colonists' ment (Figure had reacted with similar step in 1790 the metropolitan government would be equally and Toussaint must havel known that Napoleon conoutrage, Nevertheless, in early 1801 he appointed a committee, perturbed. and a few men of mixed race, to draft sisting of white property-owners his own ideas about document that would incorporate a constitutional The Louverturian constitution was how the colony should be governed. --- Page 117 --- Constitution Toussaint Louverture proclaiming the Saint-Domingue had drawn up for the colony Figure4.2 constitution that Toussaint Louverture the black population of 1801. The the abolition of slavery and promised Toussaint in 1801 proclaimed of French citizens. It also proclaimed" status havet the full rights Saint-Domingues that theywouldl the constitution reaffirmed to metropolitan rule governor for life. Although interpreted it as a challenge colony, Napoleon there. as a French force to reassert his authority and decided to use LC-USZ62-7861. Source: Library of Congress the colony Figure4.2 constitution that Toussaint Louverture the black population of 1801. The the abolition of slavery and promised Toussaint in 1801 proclaimed of French citizens. It also proclaimed" status havet the full rights Saint-Domingues that theywouldl the constitution reaffirmed to metropolitan rule governor for life. Although interpreted it as a challenge colony, Napoleon there. as a French force to reassert his authority and decided to use LC-USZ62-7861. Source: Library of Congress --- Page 118 --- Toussaint Louverture in Power, 1798-1801 process: the vast majority of the populanot the result of a democratic document, and no former black slaves tion had no voice in designing the that the the committee that drew it up. Napoleon'sp proclamation were on by "special laws" provided a legal French colonies would be governed was not to be governed opening for the project: if Saint-Domingue needed a system of its according to the French constitution, it logically that Saintfirst article, while stipulating own. The constitution's occupied Spanish territory was part Domingue including the recently by the < special asserted that it was to be governed of the French empire, laws" that followed. constitution followed the pattern of Much of Toussaint Louverture's in France after 1789, and documents produced the various constitutional from them, but it had some some of its language was directly copied devoted to "the inhabitunique features. A section of the constitution a irrevocable abolition of slavery in Saint-Domingue, ants" specified the those born in the colony but to anyone guaranteet that applied not only to meant as a response who lived or died there; this provision was probably had made during that some white colonists in France to the argument of the blacks in the colony were the Directory, claiming that the majority had been born in of Frenchmen since they not entitled to the rights were open to all men, Africa. Article 4, which said that official positions members of of their skin color, was meant both to reassure regardless minorities and to prevent the re-establishment the white and mixed-race Unlike the French revoof discrimination against the black population. did not provide for lutionary constitutions, Toussaint's document Church was to be allowed to freedom of religion: only the Catholic rulers until late in the organize public worship. Subsequent Haitian lead in refusing to grant twentieth century would follow Toussaint's of the majority of the of vodou, the religion recognition to the practice favor Catholicism, he also claimed population. While Toussaint meant to that he had the power to assign priests control over the Church, insisting them to act as a collective body. to the various parishes and forbidding constitution committed the As we saw earlier, Toussaint Louverture's and went beyond French government to favor European-style marriages, docdivorce altogether. Like the French constitutional law by forbidding document strongly defended the right uments of the 1790s, Toussaint's "sacred and inviolable." " Various proof property, which was proclaimed with the situconstitution were meant to deal complicated visions in the of SO many of the plantation-owners ation caused by the departure them to act as a collective body. to the various parishes and forbidding constitution committed the As we saw earlier, Toussaint Louverture's and went beyond French government to favor European-style marriages, docdivorce altogether. Like the French constitutional law by forbidding document strongly defended the right uments of the 1790s, Toussaint's "sacred and inviolable." " Various proof property, which was proclaimed with the situconstitution were meant to deal complicated visions in the of SO many of the plantation-owners ation caused by the departure --- Page 119 --- Toussaint Louverture in Power, 1798-1801 effect was to protect the rights of during the revolution, but the general officers and governformer owners and the interests of the military the control of abandoned plantations. ment officials who had acquired with Dessalines and other Toussaint himself was one of these, along of obtaining generals. Ratherthan being promised any possibility "the leading of black fieldworkers were reminded that their own land, the mass interruption in work on its crops, colony cannot afford the slightest of the landowners employing and that they were subject to the authority although they were to be paid for their labor. them, constitution of the Year VIII, the Louverturian Like Napoleon's own dictatorship. A legislative assemconstitution created a barely disguised who themselves were bly, chosen by members of the local governments in secret and Toussaint Louverture himself, was to meet to be named by laws proposed by the governor; could only vote to approve or reject Napoleon would introduce legislation on its own. Although it could not in 1802 to ensure that he could stay in office modify his own constitution earlier. Like his French for life, Toussaint had done the same thing a year officials to appoint civil and military rival, Toussaint had complete power forces. The constitution in chief of the armed and was commander prohibited the formation of politicreated a system of press censorship, arrest of anyone and authorized the extrajudicial cal clubs or assemblies, Toussaint's conception suspected of conspiring against the government. should have of freedom did not include any notion that the population choice of its rulers or the making of its laws. A proclamation a sayi in the the constitution promised them issued to the island's people justifying them from "the political tempests that the newinstitutions would protect made far away from you" in that arise from the imposition of laws France. 23 character of Toussaint Louverture's conIt was not the authoritarian but rather the black general's presumpstitution that angered Napoleon, be drafted and even printed without tion in ordering such a document to had been careful not to permission from Paris. Although Toussaint he had of the colony, he had acted as though declare the independence government into account. no need to take the views of the metropolitan but who understood the Colonel Vincent, who greatly: admired Toussaint tried to persuade the confrontation with Napoleon, dangers of an open to the constitution into effect black general not to insist on his right put ordered to deliver his own, but Toussaint ignored him. Vincent was on with a covering letter asserting a copy of the document to France, along had been careful not to permission from Paris. Although Toussaint he had of the colony, he had acted as though declare the independence government into account. no need to take the views of the metropolitan but who understood the Colonel Vincent, who greatly: admired Toussaint tried to persuade the confrontation with Napoleon, dangers of an open to the constitution into effect black general not to insist on his right put ordered to deliver his own, but Toussaint ignored him. Vincent was on with a covering letter asserting a copy of the document to France, along --- Page 120 --- Toussaint Louverture in Power, 1798-1801 on its own laws, and informing the necessity of the colony deciding been into effect, and that Napoleon that the constitution had already put classes of citizens. >24 "welcomed with transports of joy by all it had been Paris, had already made the By the time Vincent arrived in Napoleon but the news to Saint-Domingue, decision to send a military expedition determination to restore French of Toussaint's action redoubled his leader. authority in the colony and to remove the black Toussaint Louverture's Motives Toussaint Louverture had deliberately chosen There is little doubt that ordered the occupation of Santo French authority when he to challenge constitution drawn up, but his motives for Domingo and had a colonial have been convinced that taking these risky actions are unclear. He may despite intended to try to restore slavery in Saint-Domingue, Napoleon and that making emancipation a constituthe French ruler's denials, would help prepare the population tional principle in Saint-Domingue imposing forced labor on the to resist. The provisions of the constitution were farmworkers and protecting the rights of plantation-owners black however. Toussaint seems hardly calculated to build popular support, the many contribualso to have thought that Napoleon would recognize of French arms in the tions the black general had made to the success the argument was his progress in restoring Caribbean. His strongest official by 1801 coffee produccolony's economy: according to figures, three-fifths of the level of 1789, and sugar production, tion had reached almost entirely of less valuable raw although much lower and consisting that had been the colony's main sugar rather than the refined product Toussaint thought he had as well.35 cash crop, was steadily increasing for France than any other general," grounds to saythat hel had' "done more refused even to answer his complained that Napoleon and he repeatedly him.* He may also have underestiletters, a slight that clearly angered would reach a peace agreement mated the possibility that the French that would allow them to mount a major trans-Atlantic with the British the issuance of his constitution expedition; his proclamation justifying to aid and feed this great referred to the "inability of the metropole one of the reasons for colony during the war with the naval powers" as and France had the United States his action." 27 By this time, however, and Thomas ended the "Quasi-War" with a formal treaty, already underestiletters, a slight that clearly angered would reach a peace agreement mated the possibility that the French that would allow them to mount a major trans-Atlantic with the British the issuance of his constitution expedition; his proclamation justifying to aid and feed this great referred to the "inability of the metropole one of the reasons for colony during the war with the naval powers" as and France had the United States his action." 27 By this time, however, and Thomas ended the "Quasi-War" with a formal treaty, already --- Page 121 --- Toussaint Louverture in Power, 1798-1801 at the end of 1800, Jefferson, the Virginia slaveholder elected president Federalist Toussaint than his New England was far less willing to support between France and predecessor John Adams had been. Negotiations insisting on also their conclusion, with Napoleon Britain were nearing forces to its colonies without British interFrance's right to send military isoference. The British, for their part, helped to keep Saint-Domingue for other ports. ships that tried to leave the island lated by intercepting 500 black sailors from Saint-Domingue By February 1800, more than 28 The international situation held in prison in Jamaica. were being favorable for Toussaint than it had been in 1798 was therefore much less and 1799. Louverture's constitution was increasing While the news of Toussaint French dominance in SaintNapoleon's determination to reassert problems in the the black general was also facing severe Domingue, 1801, blacks on the plantations in the North colony itself. In October had first begun in 1791, Province, in the region where the slave uprising them, killing the strict discipline being imposed on revolted against Christophe, the black hundred whites; only swift action by Henry several prevented violence in the city. Toussaint commander of Cap Français, of his commanders, to crush considered the harshest ordered Dessalines, He blamed the military commander of the rebellion in the countryside. whom Province, Moïse, one of his oldest comrades-in-arms, the North for allowing the movement to spread. he had even adopted as his nephew, to the position of Moïse had a reputation for being more sympathetic the other leading military the black farmworkers than Toussaint and of the criticized Toussaint's protection commanders. He had repeatedly when Hédouville was expelled, Moïse remaining white colonists;i in 1798, "make all the whites leave and threatened that he would had reportedly Toussaint criticized him for not enforcabandon their properties. When Moise responded that he ing the labor regulations with sufficient rigor, He told to be the "executioner of my color" supposedly was unwilling Stevens that "although he was Toussaint's nephew, the American consul and his atrocious ambition," he detested his ingratitude, his dishonesty, the field laborers and that he was working to build a following among in the region." Louverture had Moïse arrested. In the wake ofthe uprising, Toussaint 1801. The uprising and After a hasty trial, he was executed in November extent of discontent of Moïse underlined both the to the punishment and the fact that Toussaint had come among the black population was unwilling Stevens that "although he was Toussaint's nephew, the American consul and his atrocious ambition," he detested his ingratitude, his dishonesty, the field laborers and that he was working to build a following among in the region." Louverture had Moïse arrested. In the wake ofthe uprising, Toussaint 1801. The uprising and After a hasty trial, he was executed in November extent of discontent of Moïse underlined both the to the punishment and the fact that Toussaint had come among the black population --- Page 122 --- Toussaint Louverture in Power, 1798-1801 distrust even his closest followers. Perhaps the years of effort and tension he had endured since he first committed himself to the slave uprising in 1791 had begun to take their toll on the indefatigable black leader, who was by now in his late fifties. He seemed to have lost the keen political instincts that he had shown in the earlier years of the revolution. His was still a name to conjure with in Saint-Domingue, but at the same time his strict policies had made him a considerable number of enemies. All those who had reasons to complain about him - the black fieldworkers, the mixed-race population, the whites, and now his own generals, traumatized by the treatment of Moïse would at least have grounds to think twice about continuing to support him ifthe French seemed prepared to favor their interests. As the French fleet neared the shores of Saint-Domingue in early 1802, the prospects for the "Louverturian state" Toussaint had painstakingly labored to construct seemed highly uncertain. --- Page 123 --- The Struggle for Independence, 1802-1806 B y the end of 1801, the stage was set for a violent confrontation over the destiny of Saint-Domingue. For more than eight years, since the arrival of the Second Civil Commission and the army that had accompanied it in September 1792, France's prized colony had been largely out of the metropole's control. During that time, profound changes had taken place in Saint-Domingue. The former slaves had experienced freedom and now wanted to live their everyday lives as they saw fit. The black general Toussaint Louverture had become the representative of French power in the colony, and had then liberated himself from French control and established his own system of government. Many changes had also taken place in France during those years. After the fall of Robespierre in 1794, the French population and its leaders had turned away from radical ideas about human freedom. Napoleon's seizure of power in 1799 represented a triumph for pragmatists who had little concern for liberty and were more interested in expanding France's power by building up a strong government. Particularly after the provocative moves he had made in invading Spanish Santo Domingo and issuing his own colonial constitution, Toussaint represented a major challenge to the French govemments-authority: In both Saint-Domingue and in France, however, the great question was whether bringing him to heel would also mean the curtailing of the freedom of the black population. A Concise History of the Haitian Revolution, First Edition. Jeremy D. Popkin. @ 2012 Jeremy D. Popkin. Published 2012 by Blackwell Publishing Ltd. France's power by building up a strong government. Particularly after the provocative moves he had made in invading Spanish Santo Domingo and issuing his own colonial constitution, Toussaint represented a major challenge to the French govemments-authority: In both Saint-Domingue and in France, however, the great question was whether bringing him to heel would also mean the curtailing of the freedom of the black population. A Concise History of the Haitian Revolution, First Edition. Jeremy D. Popkin. @ 2012 Jeremy D. Popkin. Published 2012 by Blackwell Publishing Ltd. --- Page 124 --- The Struggle for Independence, 1802-1806 The War against Napoleon The conflict that racked the French army landed on Saint-Domingue the from February 1802, when French troops island, to November 1803, when the last Haitian gave up the fight, was the most violent of revolution. The armies on both sides period the prisoners, and those massacred civilians, enemy ranks. As the they regarded as potential traitors in their own society in which fighting members intensified, any prospect for the maintenance of a oft thei island's threer racial on a basis of equality, as Toussaint groups lived together disappeared. So, too, did the Louverture had hoped they could, possibility of part ofa trans-Atlantic French Saint-Domingue remaining a colonists had called for empire. Independence, which some white in order to defend during the first years of the French Revolution mixed-race slavery, now became the program of the black and populations fighting against the only way to defend Napoleon's army, who saw it as Toussaint had tried to maintain emancipation. The precarious balance that ment in the island while by creating a black-dominated governcontinuing to was sovereignty no longer tenable. Like acknowledge symbolic French nists after 1776, the Britain's North American colofighting not only for their population of Saint-Domingue found themselves found a new nation. freedom as individuals, but for their right to The man who provoked this radicalization of Domingue, Napoleon the conflict in SaintMediterranean Bonaparte, had been born in 1769 in the island of Corsica at a time when that by France only a year before his territory, acquired istry of the navy and birth, was governed by the French minmainland sometimes regarded almost as a colony. Frenchmen from the island's coat of arms featured denigrated Corsicans as half-African, and the also been the site of the head of a black man. The island had a vigorous revolt for eighteenth century, led by independence in the midhad supported. Pasquale Paoli, which Napoleon's own father Napoleon's Corsican with any. sympathy for background did not inspire him sions to autonomy, however. Saint-Domingue's black population orits pretenagainst black people, Napoleon often expressed his telling the former Convention prejudices Thibaudeau, for instance, that "I am for the whites deputy Antoine I don't have any other reason, and that because I am white; anyone have granted one is good enough. How could freedom to Africans, to men who didn't have any quale Paoli, which Napoleon's own father Napoleon's Corsican with any. sympathy for background did not inspire him sions to autonomy, however. Saint-Domingue's black population orits pretenagainst black people, Napoleon often expressed his telling the former Convention prejudices Thibaudeau, for instance, that "I am for the whites deputy Antoine I don't have any other reason, and that because I am white; anyone have granted one is good enough. How could freedom to Africans, to men who didn't have any --- Page 125 --- 116 The Struggle for Independence, 1802-1806 didn't even know what a colony was, or what France civilization, who pragmatic to consider the was?"! Nevertheless, Napoleon was sufficiently and to consider the difficulties of restoring slavery in Saint- -Domingue, he might gain ifhe could persuade the black populapossible advantages France. After his fall from power in 1815, Napoleon tion to identify with he had missed. "With an army sometimes reflected on the opportunity what I not [have underthousand blacks, might of twenty-five to thirty Canada, the United States itself, or taken] against Jamaica, the Antilles, in exile. In early colonies?" he told one of his companions the Spanish Louverture offering him a 1802, he actually drafted a letter to Toussaint of French military promotion and a chance to cooperate in a program sent." 2 Caribbean, although the letter was never expansion in the Napoleon's Fateful Decision was bombarded with As he considered his various options, Napoleon Louverture and the advice from all sides about how to treat Toussaint did not try to One person who apparently blacks in Saint-Domingue. she came from a influence him was his wife, Josephine, even though in Saintfamily in Martinique and owned a plantation slaveowning did not try to sway Napoleon's policy, Domingue. Whereas Josephine did. As we have seen, Napoleon's minmany other individuals in France opinions from a wide variety ister oft the navy, Alexandre Forfait, solicited received letters and memoof people with interests in the colonies, and with Toussaint to the everything from an alliance randa advocating in all its aspects. Some former colonists immediate restoration of slavery chance of reclaiming their plantathought that they would have a better maintain the of promised to policy tions if the French government return to the old emancipation, whereas others demanded a complete black and mixedRepublicans like Sonthonax and Toussaint's the regime. in denouncing joined with former plantation-owners; race opponents "a man who owes his political existmisdeeds of the black general, that he now refuses and his position to a government ence : important from Saint-Domingue >3 Even Louis Dufay, the representative to recognize:" Year II (4 February 1794) had persuaded whose speech on 16 pluviose wrote, "for a long time, we have the Convention to abolish slavery, now blacks and the men of color" been too liberal and too tolerant with the by the in France's port cities, hard hit economically Merchants ; race opponents "a man who owes his political existmisdeeds of the black general, that he now refuses and his position to a government ence : important from Saint-Domingue >3 Even Louis Dufay, the representative to recognize:" Year II (4 February 1794) had persuaded whose speech on 16 pluviose wrote, "for a long time, we have the Convention to abolish slavery, now blacks and the men of color" been too liberal and too tolerant with the by the in France's port cities, hard hit economically Merchants --- Page 126 --- The Struggle for Independence, 1802-1806 looked forward eagerly to the end of long-drawn-out war with Britain, lucrative slave trade with the colohostilities and the resumption of the abbé continof slavery, such as the Grégoire, nies. Principled opponents blacks, but they were aware that their ued to defend the freedom of the had during the carried the same weight as they arguments no longer republican period. voices in this debate, Napoleon also As he listened to the conflicting in the Caribbean and of intervention weighed the practical possibilities colonies. Immediately after coming to the situation in France's other naval force and in 1799 he had planned to assemble a powerful but circumpower number of troops to Saint-Domingue, send a significant instead, where the army he stances forced him to divert them to Egypt The war to France was in dire straits. ongoing had abandoned to return further overseas military with Britain prevented him from planning any Britain's contifor the time being. His armies' victories over the situoperations and Hohenlinden in 1800 altered nental ally Austria at Marengo end the war, and by March 1801 the ation, however. Austria prepared to chance of defeating the French, British government, seeing no further settlement. Napoleon saw had begun putting out feelers about a peace Caribbean not onlyto regain full control oftheimportant the opportunity France that had escaped colonies, the only parts of pre-revolutionary France the dominant power control, but also to make from the country's Louisiana territory, which Spain had ceded in the Gulf of Mexico. The in 1800, would restore France's to France in the treaty of Saint Ildefonse which it had lost after the position on the North American continent, that Louisiana could Seven Years War in 1763. Napoleon calculated and the other sugar provide food and supplies for Saint-Domingue part ofthe would once again be an important islands, whose plantations country's economy. reclaim the colonies Britain had occupied, As Napoleon prepared to in where face the of the fate of slavery Martinique, he had to question been applied because the island the abolition decree of 1794 had never had already decided, had been under British occupation. Napoleon would be maintained in the shortly after coming to power, that slavery of Réunion in the Indian Ile Bourbon (today's French department would not grant freedom to Ocean), and he soon made it clear that he it was theowhen France recovered it. Although the slaves in Martinique in which slavery existed retically possible to imagine a colonial empire proximity to territories but not in others, Martinique's in some he had to question been applied because the island the abolition decree of 1794 had never had already decided, had been under British occupation. Napoleon would be maintained in the shortly after coming to power, that slavery of Réunion in the Indian Ile Bourbon (today's French department would not grant freedom to Ocean), and he soon made it clear that he it was theowhen France recovered it. Although the slaves in Martinique in which slavery existed retically possible to imagine a colonial empire proximity to territories but not in others, Martinique's in some --- Page 127 --- The Struggle for Independence, 1802-1806 Guadeloupe and Saint-Domingue among the recently emancipated understandably raised concerns populations in colonies; as we have seen, Toussaint Louverture France'sother Caribbean about cited Napoleon's Martinique as one of the reasons for his distrust decision for his part, was also of him. Napoleon, He learned of the black increasingly concerned about Toussaint's actions. just when the first British general's occupation of Spanish Santo Domingo news undoubtedly made him peace proposals were being floated, and the over Toussaint. more determined to assert his Toussaint's colonial authority as the treaty with Britain constitution reached Napoleon just increase the size of his was being finalized, and provoked him to planned expedition. Evaluating Napoleon's intentions with complicated by the fact that the French regard to Saint-Domingue is himself, knew the ruler, like Toussaint Louverture the advantage of fkeeping his intentions numerous pro-slavery pamphlets concealed. One of years prior to the Saint-Domingue published in France during the French authority that expedition laid out a plan to restore Its author certainly resembles what Napoleon actually did. recommended the issuance of a secret decree slaveryin the colony, to be made public only reinstating of Saint-Domingue had been once French military control willing to return to their old established, If the former slaves were ment, but if they tried to resist masters, they would be spared any punishin complete they would have to be "defeated and subjection to forestall new misfortunes." kept held officer rank in the army would have Blacks who had altogether. "To avoid to be removed from the colony their families"in bloodshed, one could offer to send them back to Africa, the author suggested, imagine how they would be dealt with leaving it to the reader to It is unlikely that this if they balked at this idea. particular pamphlet actually, guided decision-making, but the secret instructions issued Napoleon's Emmanuel Leclerc, the to General Victorsimilar logic. Leclerc was expedition's told commander, in 1801 followed a byi issuing to proceed in three phases. He was to reassurances to the population and begin Louverture, promising him negotiating with Toussaint sion of the anything he wanted "in order to take strongholds and to get ourselves into posseswas accomplished, however, Leclerc the country" Once this He would order Toussaint was to become "more to give upl his demanding." the black general from his authority, and he would separate tary positions. Placed under supporters by confirming them in their milibe used, the Leclerc's control, the black army would then alongside white troops, to crush rebellious movements in him negotiating with Toussaint sion of the anything he wanted "in order to take strongholds and to get ourselves into posseswas accomplished, however, Leclerc the country" Once this He would order Toussaint was to become "more to give upl his demanding." the black general from his authority, and he would separate tary positions. Placed under supporters by confirming them in their milibe used, the Leclerc's control, the black army would then alongside white troops, to crush rebellious movements in --- Page 128 --- The Struggle for Independence, 1802-1806 119 this was done, Leclerc was to proceed to the the countryside. As soon as Toussaint but the other third and final phase of his mission. Not only to be arrested; Jean-Jacques Dessalines, were black generals, particularly they were to be "shot like rebels." if they were captured carrying arms, officers in Toussaint's army Or All those of any color who had served as and the black popuofficials in his government were to be sent to France, who had violated disarmed. White women lation was to be completely by having sexual relations with European notions about racial hierarchy instructions did not explicitly blacks were also to be deported." Leclerc's indeed, at the moment of slavery in the colony; order the reintroduction of November 1801, he when Napoleon signed them, at the beginning French Caribbean officially slavery in any of the had not yet legalized however, to use deception and force to colonies. Leclerc was directed, to impose a white military establish his control of Saint-Domingue, in Toussaint purged of anyone who had participated government and to render the black population completely Louverture's regime, defenseless. The Leclerc Expedition force that Leclerc was to command began The massive expeditionary agreement with Britain was assembling as soon as the preliminary peace overseas military efforts signed in October 1801. It was one of the largest soldiers, had ever undertaken. More than 20,000 any European power veterans of the wars France had been fighting most of them experienced different Atlantic port cities, where since 1792, were dispatched to seven them and their supplies to the of warships prepared to take an armada force of 3,600 men, commanded Caribbean.. At the same time, a separate where Magloire General Antoine Richepance, headed for Guadeloupe, by mixed race, had led an uprising that overthrew Pélage, a man of they agreed to permit the the French military regime in 1801.Although they feared that the British watched it warily: French expedition, to conquer their valuable colony Napoleon might decide to use his troops Nevertheless, instead of sending them to Saint-Domingue. of Jamaica of in the French British officials agreed that the experiment Femancipationi in the Caribbean. In posed a danger to their own slave colonies colony President Jefferson, a slaveholder himself, expressed the United States, Louverture. On the other hand, however, no sympathy for Toussaint of they agreed to permit the the French military regime in 1801.Although they feared that the British watched it warily: French expedition, to conquer their valuable colony Napoleon might decide to use his troops Nevertheless, instead of sending them to Saint-Domingue. of Jamaica of in the French British officials agreed that the experiment Femancipationi in the Caribbean. In posed a danger to their own slave colonies colony President Jefferson, a slaveholder himself, expressed the United States, Louverture. On the other hand, however, no sympathy for Toussaint --- Page 129 --- The Struggle for Independence, 1802-1806 Napoleon's ambitious plans worried him. If the French Orleans, they would be able to interfere with controlled New American Mississippi River, and if they regained full commerce on the they could try to bar American traders control of Saint-Domingue, the colony. For the time from their lucrative trade with profits by being, American merchants could make supplying the French expedition, and good in the thought that "the Jefferson took comfort work. It will take considerable conquest of St. Domingo will not be a short soldiers." >>7 time to wear down a great number of The commander of the Saint-Domingue promising young general who had served with expedition, Leclerc, was a paign in Italy that had made Napoleon in the cammarried to Napoleon's sister Napoleon's own reputation. Leclerc was nied him Pauline, a renowned on the voyage that was beauty who accompawith the troops, the supposed to consolidate his fame. Along ships carried a number of Toussaint political opponents, such as André Rigaud and Louverture's leaders of the resistance to the black Alexandre Pétion, former Jean-Baptiste Belley, the black general in the South Province, and announce the deputy Sonthonax had sent to France to Toussaint's emancipation decree of 1793. also two sons, who had been Napoleon sent deliver to their father a letter from studying in France; they were to the authority of General Leclerc. Napoleon calling on him to accept put to sea until 14 December Because of bad weather the fleet did not nally planned; 1801, several crucial weeks later than origieveryone understood thei to Saint-Domingue in the importance of getting the troops before the winter, in hopes of concluding the summer heat and storms, which campaign break of tropical diseases usually also brought an outfor the among newly arrived ships to rendezvous at Samana Europeans. The plan was section of Hispaniola, and then Bay, off the coast of the Spanish ings at the various of disperse to carry out simultaneous landports the island. The opposition the French would have to face in very different from the slave insurrection of Saint-Domingue was of fighting against the British, the 1791 to 1793. The long years Toussaint Louverture Spanish, and Rigaud's forces had a large body of trained whose given impressed European observers; in all, they numbered troops, discipline the time of Leclerc's landing, around 20,000 at militiamen. Toussaint's supplemented by another 10,000 local and Henry corps of officers, headed by men like Dessalines Christophe, were also battle-hardened veterans. In tryside, many of the black farm laborers the counwere men who had participated 3. The long years Toussaint Louverture Spanish, and Rigaud's forces had a large body of trained whose given impressed European observers; in all, they numbered troops, discipline the time of Leclerc's landing, around 20,000 at militiamen. Toussaint's supplemented by another 10,000 local and Henry corps of officers, headed by men like Dessalines Christophe, were also battle-hardened veterans. In tryside, many of the black farm laborers the counwere men who had participated --- Page 130 --- The Struggle for Independence, 1802-1806 in the fighting at some point kept their muskets during the revolution. Many of them even when they returned home; Toussaint had emphasized that their weapons were the had often freedom. In of ultimate defense of their anticipation an invasion, Toussaint had hidden weapons and supplies in various parts of the island's caches of could be distributed to the interior, where they however, Toussaint's population in case of a war. At the same own policies had made some of time, regard him as a greater threat to their freedom the population rigorous labor regulations, than the French. His heavy-handedly enforced protection of white landowners, and his by the army, his lives alienated much of the black efforts to control people's private mixed-race population that population. The anciens libres, the the blacks because of its regarded itself as naturally suited to govern orders from education and wealth, resented a black man whose ascent had blocked having to take become the leaders of their ambitions to generals thought his defiance Saint-Domingue. Even some of Toussaint's own of the French had been frontational. As Leclerc's armada neared the excessively conmuch of the colony, it was not clear how population was prepared to follow armed resistance. Toussaint in a policy of Alerted to the impending arrival of the French by the beginning of December 1801, by newspaper reports the territory inspecting his Toussaint Louverture criss-crossed reaction to Moise's rebellion troops and fortifications. The violence of his and his harshly worded population in November 1801 proclamation to the about the French threat may well have reflected the anxiety.he felt even before he knew for on its way. Toussaint is said to have sure that the fleet was French fleet in Samana actually observed the arrival of the well-armed Bay, and the sight of SO many ships, all troops, momentarily discouraged him. carrying he reportedly told his officers. "The "We are going to die," Domingue She whole of France has come to Saintslavery", Quickly comes to avenge herself and force thel blacks back into French recovering his nerve, however, he part of the island to galloped back to the the French prepare to resist the occupation. insisted that since Toussaint Officially, their continued to sovereignty over Saint-Domingue, he should acknowledge to French have no troops coming to the colony. Toussaint objection French recognized him as the colony's responded that if the requested his official governor, they should have permission to come ashore, In braced for combat. Any reality, both sides were General Rochambeau's pretense to the contrary disappeared when units landed at Fort-Dauphin (then called to resist the occupation. insisted that since Toussaint Officially, their continued to sovereignty over Saint-Domingue, he should acknowledge to French have no troops coming to the colony. Toussaint objection French recognized him as the colony's responded that if the requested his official governor, they should have permission to come ashore, In braced for combat. Any reality, both sides were General Rochambeau's pretense to the contrary disappeared when units landed at Fort-Dauphin (then called --- Page 131 --- 122 The Struggle for Independence, 1802-1806 on 3 February Fort-Liberté) on the north coast, east of Cap Français, defenders. This was massacred its outnumbered black 1802 and brutally that would mark the fighting for the next the first of the many atrocities control of Saint-Domingue by far two years and make the struggle for the bloodiest phase of the Haitian Revolution. Resistance sharply in their assessment of whether the conHistorians have differed following the French landfused and violent events of the first months Toussaint plan of resistance directed by ings reflected a systematic the result of uncoordinated actions by Louverture or whether they were As was often the case during his his generals and the population at large. crucial moments, and it is career, Toussaint kept out of sight at several following his his subordinates were always impossible to be sure whether make decisions on their own. Once orders, or whether they were left to entire to rise up started, Toussaint called on the population the fighting and the island's cities, but it is not clear and set fire to the plantations were obeying him or acting whether the peasants who took up arms an overall plan of spontaneously to defend their freedom. If there was it. In the commanders quickly betrayed resistance, some of Toussaint's generals Augustin Clervaux former Spanish territory of Santo Domingo, submitted to the French and Paul Louverture, Toussaint's own brother, where memories of token resistance. In the South Province, after only were still strong, General Laplume, the"war of the knives" of 1799-1800 had appointed to avoid one of the mixed-race commanders Toussaint black military elite, was perthe appearance of creating an exclusively French authority without firing a shot. suaded to accept in their efforts to take over more resistance The French encountered and Port-au-Prince (still the island's two major cities, Cap Français had received called, in 1802, by the new name - Port-Républicain - thatitl the black When Leclerc himself tried to land at Cap Français, in 1793). insisted that he could not let the French commander Henry Christophe Toussaint Louverture himself. troops ashore without permission from black man named César On behalf of the city's population, the mayor, a threat to burn pleaded with Christophe not to carry out his Télémaque, French forced an entry, an indication of the willingthe city down if the take their chances with the French ness of some of the population to ain - thatitl the black When Leclerc himself tried to land at Cap Français, in 1793). insisted that he could not let the French commander Henry Christophe Toussaint Louverture himself. troops ashore without permission from black man named César On behalf of the city's population, the mayor, a threat to burn pleaded with Christophe not to carry out his Télémaque, French forced an entry, an indication of the willingthe city down if the take their chances with the French ness of some of the population to --- Page 132 --- The Struggle for Independence, 1802-1806 rather than supporting Toussaint, but "You shall not enter the town of Le Christophe remained inflexible. I will oppose you," he Cap until it is in ashes, and even then wrote to the French French Government has sent to general. "You say that the quishing any rebels that may be Saint-Domingue found forces capable of vanto create them, here; but it is you who have come hostile intentions among a people peaceful and obedient to France, that you express. 9 When the French by the to make their way past the fort warships managed example by setting fire to his guarding the harbor, Christophe set the the town to take own house before leading his troops out of up positions in the In Port-au-Prince, surrounding mountains. resistance Dessalines and his black soldiers also to the French occupiers, put up strong highest-ranking white officer in although General Pierre Agé, the mixed-raced commanders Toussaint's army, and some of the Dessalines went over to their side. Driven out of the retreated into the mountains city, Provinces, rallying the dividing the West and North French had come to population by spreading the rumor that restore slavery. Along his the to the towns and massacred hundreds route, Dessalines set fire Toussaint Louverture, who of their white inhabitants. He and sonal had established his headquarters on plantation at Ennery, urged the black cultivateurs his perside to take up arms and launch a in the country- "We are guerrilla war against the French fighting an Arab-style war here," Leclerc troops. soon as have we passed the wrote to Napoleon. "As through, blacks road and cut our communications' >10 occupy the woods along the tion, women contributed As in earlier phases of the revoluto the resistance with joined the armed guerrilla bands in the along the men. Some tage of the fact that the French countryside; others took advanlines to bring food from the continued to let them cross the battle and report on French countryside into the cities to serve as spies military movements. Looking back on this early phase of the conflict black general Henry Christophe later in the year, the better for the blacks not commented that it would have been battles. "If to try to confront the French our system of resistance had been army in regular and play on the fears of the field hands not to fight but to retreat Old Toussaint never left off saying you would never have got at us. he told a French officer. 11 that, but nobody would listen to him," of the guerrilla resistance Establishing cooperation between the leaders Sans-Souci in the northern movements men like Petit Noël, Sylla, and and Toussaint's mountains and Lamour Dérance in the west generals was not easy, however. Many of the guerrilla French our system of resistance had been army in regular and play on the fears of the field hands not to fight but to retreat Old Toussaint never left off saying you would never have got at us. he told a French officer. 11 that, but nobody would listen to him," of the guerrilla resistance Establishing cooperation between the leaders Sans-Souci in the northern movements men like Petit Noël, Sylla, and and Toussaint's mountains and Lamour Dérance in the west generals was not easy, however. Many of the guerrilla --- Page 133 --- 124 The Struggle for Independence, 1802-1806 led revolts against Toussaint's own government, leaders had previously who were nowjoining them sometimes fighting against the same generals all plantation the French. The black generals, who had acquired the against Toussaint's rule, had a personal interest in enforcing properties under of the rural population's revolts. labor regulations that had fueled many his resistance, Leclerc sent Hoping to persuade Toussaint to abandon and their tutor to deliver a letter from Napoleon, promising his two sons treated if he accepted that he would be generously the black general under Leclerc's command. Although French authority and put himself moved to see his sons for the witnesses recorded that he was deeply Leclerc's promToussaint refused to be swayed by first time in six years, he told the boys' tutor, ises. "If General Leclerc really wants peace," Placide decided to "let him halt the march of his troops." His son remain with the but his brother Isaac chose to join Toussaint's army, to his letter gave Leclerc the pretext French. Toussaint's negative response declaring the black general dated 17 February 1802, for a proclamation, an outlaw. the first months after the French landing took The fiercest fighting in West and the North Provinces, where placei in the mountains between the Toussaint Louverture Leclerc had hoped to surround the troops loyal to a steepand Dessalines. In a fierce engagement at Ravine-a-Couleuvre, number of armed sided valley, Toussaint's troops, supported by a large soldiers in a showed they could stand up to the best French cultivateurs, Descourtilz, taken captive by Dessalines and pitched battle. The doctor to treat the black soldiers, spared because of his medical skills, was forced episode of this first and thus became a witness to the most celebrated a small fort the siege of Crête-à-Pierrot, stage of the military campaign, where Dessalines made a stand. in the middle of the Cahos mountains from all directions, outnumbered by French units arriving Heavily trenches around the fort andinflicted heavy casualDessalines's men dug who tried to storm their position. white troops ties on the overconfident the fort, the black soldiers grimly hung on, When the French bombarded acknowledged. "Deprived of with a courage that Descourtilz reluctantly heat, the troops had to chew on water and food in this overwhelming unbearablet thirst"Descourtilz balls ofleadi in thel hope of quenching their out of a hope for reported. "They suffered without complaint, vengeance: >12 of the forceful personality that Descourtilz's memoirs give a sense Louverture and enable Dessalines to replace Toussaint would eventually the fort, the black soldiers grimly hung on, When the French bombarded acknowledged. "Deprived of with a courage that Descourtilz reluctantly heat, the troops had to chew on water and food in this overwhelming unbearablet thirst"Descourtilz balls ofleadi in thel hope of quenching their out of a hope for reported. "They suffered without complaint, vengeance: >12 of the forceful personality that Descourtilz's memoirs give a sense Louverture and enable Dessalines to replace Toussaint would eventually --- Page 134 --- The Struggle for Independence, 1802-1806 Dessalines had been a slave defeat the French. In contrast to Toussaint, scarred from the whippings until the revolution, and his back was deeply hatred of suffered. His experiences had given him an abiding he had members of the free colored caste. Prior to the whites and the privileged Dessalines and Toussaint had comFrench invasion, Descourtilz noted, for their private bands, but, peted to recruit the island's best musicians and mixed-race players, whereas Toussaint's group included white he would black. Even as he realized Dessalines's ensemble was entirely Dessalines still found his at Crête-à-Pierrot, have to abandon position have courage, I tell you, the ways to inspire his men. "Have courage, > he assured his officers, French can't hold out long in Saint-Domingue:" but soon theyll be Creole. "They will start off strongly, in his earthy and will die like flies. Hear whatlsyifDesalincs slowed down byillness, times, he will betray them a hundred surrenders to them a hundred them, we'll burn their harvests, we'll harass them, we'll fight times : where can't get us. They won't be able to then we'll hide in our hills they it. Then P'll make you indehold the country, and they'l1 have to leave need whites among us any more." As they besieged pendent. We don't demoralized to hear the defenders the fortress, the French troops were General De La Croix comsinging their own republican war songs; wonder if they were fighting mented that some of his men began to had sworn to defend. against the ideals of freedom and equality they and escaped from the When the last black defenders made a breakout admitted that they had "executed a remarkable fortress, De La Croix defense of Crête-à-Pierrot is one of the feat of arms." Even today, the Haitian national memory. heroic episodes of the war that stands out in The Illusion of a French Victory of their soldiers, Dessalines and Despite the courage and determination the advance of the heavily Toussaint Louverture were unable to stop Leclerc's armed French troops. One by one, Toussaint's generals accepted would be that if they came over to the French side they assurances rank and continue to command their men. General allowed to retain their hard to defend the northern coastal Maurepas, who had initially fought the struggle at the end ofl February, area around Port-de-Paix, abandoned in to the French. after most of his own subordinates had already given units that had been change of sides freed up the French Maurepas's Toussaint Louverture were unable to stop Leclerc's armed French troops. One by one, Toussaint's generals accepted would be that if they came over to the French side they assurances rank and continue to command their men. General allowed to retain their hard to defend the northern coastal Maurepas, who had initially fought the struggle at the end ofl February, area around Port-de-Paix, abandoned in to the French. after most of his own subordinates had already given units that had been change of sides freed up the French Maurepas's --- Page 135 --- 126 The Struggle for Independence, 1802-1806 against Toussaint's main force, seriopposing him to join the campaign early April, after the end of the ously weakening the resistance effort. By defied Leclerc and set fire Christophe, who had siege of Crète-à-Pierrot, example, although he in February, followed Maurepas's to Cap Français Toussaint. Dessalines, the rejected Leclerc's effort to get him to betray the fight, field commanders who had kept up last of Toussaint's major Toussaint was isolated, with finally did likewise. By the beginning of May, twilingtokepupther fightagainst thel French.Accompanied fewtroopsleftw several hundred heavily armed soldiers, Toussaint by an honor guard of announced that he was prepared to arrived unexpectedly in Le Cap and with authority. Leclerc, fearful of a confrontation recognize Leclerc's him that he could retire peacefully to his Toussaint's escort, promised officers would be integrated into the plantation, and that his soldiers and write to that On 7 May 1802, Leclerc was able to Napoleon French army. the rebel chiefs have position is beautiful and brilliant - all "my present submitted." he had made to him, Leclerc always intended to Despite the promises as his orders from eliminate Toussaint Louverture as quickly as possible, for the insisted. He was sure that Toussaint was waiting he could Napoleon would weaken the French forces and moment when disease Leclerc claimed, them. In the meantime, resume the fight against rural cultivateurs to continue their Toussaint was secretly inciting the officers, General Jeanresistance. On 7 June 1802, one of his guerrilla Toussaint, luring him away from his plantaBaptiste Brunet, set a trap for the of troops in the of consulting him about stationing tion on pretext Toussaint was taken by surprise when the area. The normally suspicious him no chance to resist. He was French soldiers surrounded him, giving where he was hustled disarmed and taken to the port of Gonaives, quickly to France; his family was arrested the next day on board a ship to be sent the ship that would carry him and deported with him. As he boarded "In overthrowfor good, he told its captain, away from Saint-Domingue the trunk ofthe tree of the blacks' liberty ing me, you have cut down onlyt back from its roots, because they are in Saint-Domingue; it will grow inflicted on Toussaint after deep and numerous." >14 The harsh treatment feared his influence. his arrival in France showed how much Napoleon France to the Fort de Separated from his family, he was rushed across and kept in solitary hundreds ofr miles away from the coast, Joux, a prison climate of his prison and the isolation in confinement. The cold, damp his health; he died on 7 April 1803, which he was kept soon undermined have cut down onlyt back from its roots, because they are in Saint-Domingue; it will grow inflicted on Toussaint after deep and numerous." >14 The harsh treatment feared his influence. his arrival in France showed how much Napoleon France to the Fort de Separated from his family, he was rushed across and kept in solitary hundreds ofr miles away from the coast, Joux, a prison climate of his prison and the isolation in confinement. The cold, damp his health; he died on 7 April 1803, which he was kept soon undermined --- Page 136 --- The Struggle for Independence, 1802-1806 was still under way. As he had while the struggle for Saint-Domingue the French no advantage: however, his exile and death brought be forced predicted, indeed learn that the black population could not they would back into submission. Louverture out of the way, General Although he had gotten Toussaint remained precarious. Even that his hold on the island Leclerc recognized the tropical diseases that before Toussaint's capture and deportation, to arrived Europeans were beginning always took a heavy toll on newly three months after his arrival, at his forces. On 8 May, just eat away had only 12,000 soldiers left out of the Leclerc reported to Paris that he 200 and 250 were falling 20,000 he had arrived with, and that between fever was ravagepidemic of yellow sick every day. By June, a full-fledged while the blacks, largely immune ing the army, killing the white troops Leclerc'slettersl became disease, remained healthy. to the mosquito-borne about the lack of supplies litany of deaths and complaints a continual As he to his superiors, the dwindling and support from France. explained for him to proceed with number of French troops made it impossible their units: the black military officers and disperse the plan to arrest functional soldiers he had. In accordance increasingly, they were the only for the disarmament of the with his instructions, Leclerc gave orders about the in the countryside, but he had no illusions black population policy: the white troops were in no obstacles to enforcing this unpopular into the mountains, and the condition to undertake difficult expeditions black troops could not be trusted. and the other officers who Dessalines, Christophe, For a few months, side continued to follow Leclerc's orders; had come over to the French forces in the mounDessalines was SO vigorous in pursuing the guerrilla butcher of the blacks." In tains that Leclerc himself called him "the Charles when another of Toussaint's former generals, August 1802, wife Sanite, tried to turn the black soldiers against Belair, inspired by his turned him over to the French, Dessalines arrested him and the French, shot. Sanite, who exhorted her husband to who had him and his wife became one of the show courage as they were led to their execution, Nevertheless, heroines of the struggle against the French. black legendary of having to rely SO heavily on a largely Leclerc realized the danger had hoped that the The French originally army with black commanders. would be more trustworthy, but they, officers and soldiers of mixed race number oftheml had returned too, were unhappy with Leclercspolicies.Ar but after Leclerc decided to send with the expedition, to Saint-Domingue husband to who had him and his wife became one of the show courage as they were led to their execution, Nevertheless, heroines of the struggle against the French. black legendary of having to rely SO heavily on a largely Leclerc realized the danger had hoped that the The French originally army with black commanders. would be more trustworthy, but they, officers and soldiers of mixed race number oftheml had returned too, were unhappy with Leclercspolicies.Ar but after Leclerc decided to send with the expedition, to Saint-Domingue --- Page 137 --- 128 The Struggle for Independence, 1802-1806 mixed-race rival, and some of his supporters André Rigaud, Toussaint's that the French were back to France in May 1802, the others recognized blacks, in a subordinate determined to keep them, as well as the position. Re-establishment of Slavery Napoleon's by the initial results of the Saint-Domingue expedition, Encouraged in France that were bound to inspire Napoleon took new measures On 20 floréal further resistance from the population in Saint-Domingue. law the May 1802), he officially promulgated a repealing Year X (10 abolition decree of 16 pluviose Year II (4 February National Convention's of slavery in those colonies, such 1794) and authorizing the maintenance abolished. There was a certain where it had never been as Martinique, this measure - in the Tribunate, the most amount of opposition to Napoleonic legislature, the important house of the normally compliant Napoleon's laws much less than the lopsided majority vote was 54:27, to seriously concern Napoleon. A normally received - but not enough colonists and supporters of backed by former concerted press campaign, "by their ungratefulness to the governthe regime, argued that thel blacks, their atrocities against the their insurrection against it, by ment, by but "criminals who deserve whites," had shown that they were nothing of the contributors as Narcisse Baudry Deslozières, one to be punished," dedicated to Napoleon's wife to this campaign, put it.5 His book, based racism that would Josephine, formulated a new, biologically Racist attitudes were pervade the western world for more than a century. blacks in another decree, issued on 2 July 1802, prohibiting also reflected metropolitan France. The and even people of mixed race from entering of the most steadfast of revolutionary France'sopponents abbé Grégoire, these attacks in his Of the Literature of the racism and slavery, answered of blacks, but he highlighting the intellectual accomplishments Negroes, his book until 1808. was not able to publish law of 20 floréal and of Napoleon's decision News of the passage ofthe Saint-Domingue in August. to maintain slavery in Martinique reached decision to restore A month later, in September, word of Richepance's circulate. Convinced that slavery in all but name in Guadeloupe began to the French meant to follow the same policy in Saint-Domingue, the officers in Leclerc's army began to turn leading black and mixed-race accomplishments Negroes, his book until 1808. was not able to publish law of 20 floréal and of Napoleon's decision News of the passage ofthe Saint-Domingue in August. to maintain slavery in Martinique reached decision to restore A month later, in September, word of Richepance's circulate. Convinced that slavery in all but name in Guadeloupe began to the French meant to follow the same policy in Saint-Domingue, the officers in Leclerc's army began to turn leading black and mixed-race --- Page 138 --- The Struggle for Independence, 1802-1806 Alexandre Pétion, who had defended against the French. In mid-October, the "war of the knives' just two Jacmel against Dessalines's army during with the black general earlier, went over to the insurgents, along years attack that almost overran Cap Clervaux, and launched a surprise but he knew his posiFrançais. Leclerc managed to beat back the enemy, the French army hopeless. In reaction to the attack, tion was becoming who had been part of the garrison in the city killed 1,200 black soldiers that increased the hatred by drowning them in the harbor, an atrocity and mine them. "Every day the party of the insurrection grows against of the losses among the whites and the desertions diminishes, because Dessalines, who had been among the blacks," Leclerc wrote to Napoleon. the summer, was active in the guerrilla bands during the most repressing French. Leclerc had realized that the black clearly planning to betray the he captured from the the weapons general was no longer destroying them for later use, and that he "no guerrillas, a sign that he was hiding >>16 mistreats the blacks, as he did before." longer simply melted away into the mounBy this point, as his black troops whites continued to die the against him and the tains to join uprising could maintain Leclerc had concluded that only a veritable genocide off, "We must destroy all the negroes French authority in Saint-Domingue. only children younger than in the mountains, men and women, sparing and not leave in the twelve, destroy half those who live in the plains, he man of color who has worn an officer's epaulette," colony a single (Figure 5.1). Fortunately, wrote in one of his last letters to Napoleon after Pétion's and he had no forces left to carry out such a policy. Shortly the two highestClervaux's defections, Christophe and Dessalines, abandoned the French. commanders from Toussaint's army, also fever ranking Leclerc came down with the deadly yellow At the end of the month, he was dead. Command that had decimated his army; within a few days General of the French forces passed to his scond-in-command, stabilize the military Rochambeau. Rochambeau was able to temporarily and the arrival of reinforcements from France situation, thanks to the that followed the end of the hot slackening of the yellow fever epidemic think that the worst ofthe strugsummer weather. Some whites began to Jean-Joseph Borie in Cap gle was over. In February 1803, the merchant feather plumes for officFrançais ordered a shipment of goods including telling his correers' helmets and fancy scarves for women, confidently he in Bordeaux that "they will bring me a pretty profit"; 18 spondents to France with a retinue of black servants. dreamed of returning from France situation, thanks to the that followed the end of the hot slackening of the yellow fever epidemic think that the worst ofthe strugsummer weather. Some whites began to Jean-Joseph Borie in Cap gle was over. In February 1803, the merchant feather plumes for officFrançais ordered a shipment of goods including telling his correers' helmets and fancy scarves for women, confidently he in Bordeaux that "they will bring me a pretty profit"; 18 spondents to France with a retinue of black servants. dreamed of returning --- Page 139 --- - Figure 5.1 The Mode of From the start of their Exterminating the Black Army as the French used military invasion of Practised by the French. brutal tactics Saint-Domingue in prisoners. Black forces against the blacks, February 1802, French soldiers. retaliated by including the drowning of the Haitian The two years of fighting massacring in white civilians and Revolution. This 1802-3 were the captured Marcus Rainsford's An illustration comes from the bloodiest phase of in 1805, this was one of Historical the Account of the Black English army officer independence. first books in English about Empire of Hayti, Published the Source: struggle for Haitian Courtesy of the John Carter Brown Library at Brown University: --- Page 140 --- The Struggle for Independence, 1802-1806 reinstatement of slavery was a dream for While the possibility of the The violence for the island's black population. Borie, it was a nightmare shattered the lives of members of all unleashed by the French expedition of life that had begun to racial groups and overturned the new patterns In the northern coastal after the abolition of slavery in 1793. when emerge inhabitants lost their homes town of Port-de-Paix, for example, burned the city before abandonthe local black commander, Maurepas, of black cultivateurs ing it in February 1802. In October 1802, an army massacred most of its seized the town and, according to some reports, commanded by Soon afterward, French troops white male population. and retaliated by killing as many black soldiers General Brunet retook it of them women, took refuge could. Traumatized survivors, many as they Island, where those who were lucky off the coast, on nearby Tortuga testimonials from white enough to have appropriate documents or himself, to get certifiacquaintances besieged the local notary, a refugee emanthat they had been legally free before Sonthonax's cates attesting 1793, hoping that such papers would protect cipation decree of August them if the French won." Dessalines and the Growth of Resistance French the winter of 1802-3 was only tempoThe respite for the during the insurrection was becomAlthough military action was limited, 5.2), rary. under the leadership of Dessalines (Figure ing better organized its overall leader at a meeting in the who was officially proclaimed Caribbean histoArcahaye plain in May 1803. As the twentieth-century Dessalines, in spite rian C. L. R. James wrote in his classic Black Jacobins, needed resort to brutality, was the leader the movement of his frequent "Dessalines was a one-sided in the all-out war that had now developed. >20 Toussaint had genius, but he was the man for this crisis, not Toussaint. an underabandon his hope of achieving never been able to completely between whites and standing with the French and a genuine cooperation skills, but lacked Toussaint's subtlety and diplomatic blacks. Dessalines the French and he saw no devoted to defeating he was single-mindedly in the country. Recognizing the need for a continuing white presence and the mixed-race population, importance of unity between the blacks mixed-race he reconciled himself with the generals however, Dessalines "war of the knives" and left it to two of had fought against during the been able to completely between whites and standing with the French and a genuine cooperation skills, but lacked Toussaint's subtlety and diplomatic blacks. Dessalines the French and he saw no devoted to defeating he was single-mindedly in the country. Recognizing the need for a continuing white presence and the mixed-race population, importance of unity between the blacks mixed-race he reconciled himself with the generals however, Dessalines "war of the knives" and left it to two of had fought against during the --- Page 141 --- The Struggle for Independence, 1802-1806 a - a Figure 5.2 Dessalines, the First Emperor of Haiti, in His Dress Uniform. A contemporary portrait of Jean-Jacques Dessalines, the tough-minded leader who replaced Toussaint Louverture as leader of the black movement in 1802. Haitians remember him as the hero who defeated the French and proclaimed Haiti's independence. The elaborate costume he adopted symbolized the distance that he andt theother formerslaveshad: traveled in the course ofthe Haitian Revolution. Source: Courtesy of the John Carter Brown Library at Brown University. them, Nicolas Geffrard and Pétion, to take control of the south, the former stronghold of André Rigaud, where widespread revolts among the local black cultivateurs had already undermined the French position. For the first time since the start of the Haitian Revolution, the revolutionary movements representing the two non-white groups were finally united. Their goal was no longer to protect the rights the French had granted them during the republican period, but instead to drive the French out of Saint-Domingue entirely and make it an independent : Courtesy of the John Carter Brown Library at Brown University. them, Nicolas Geffrard and Pétion, to take control of the south, the former stronghold of André Rigaud, where widespread revolts among the local black cultivateurs had already undermined the French position. For the first time since the start of the Haitian Revolution, the revolutionary movements representing the two non-white groups were finally united. Their goal was no longer to protect the rights the French had granted them during the republican period, but instead to drive the French out of Saint-Domingue entirely and make it an independent --- Page 142 --- The Struggle for Independence, 1802-1806 of Jamaica in June 1803, Dessalines told country. Writing to the governor to France have been him, "all the ties that bound Saint-Domingue the insurgents, now calling broken" As a sign of their determination of the native inhabitthemselves the "indigenous army" that is, the army which they had abandoned the French tricolor flag, ants of the island, a flag with just two stripes, one continued to use in 1802, and adopted black and mixed-race the union of the red and one blue, symbolizing the alliance and the exclusion of the whites.2 Although populations mixed-race leaders put an end to one of the most among the black and conflicts between the generals serious divisions among the population, and the leaders of the the organized opposition to the French directing that had broken out in many parts of the countrypopular movements for example, who had side continued. The rebel leader Sans-Souci, when the black generals fought against Christophe during the period himself to his former Leclerc, refused to subordinate were supporting Sans-Souci assassinated, and his enemy. Christophe reacted by having Toussaint's brother. followers retaliated by killing Paul Louverture, foreshadowed conflicts The divisions within the insurgent movement after the of Haitian independence, that would break out proclamation the French. The last French but they did not slow down the war against of 1803, with the the colony disappeared in the spring hopes of retaining had fully trusted renewal of the war with Britain. Neither government they had signed in the other to live up to the terms of the peace treaty it was clear that March 1802, and by the beginning of the following year A year of peacel had not been enough hostilities would soon resume again. knew that he would have to for France to rebuild its navy, and Napoleon centered on Saint-Domingue. abandon his plans for a Caribbean empire United States: in early decision had momentous consequences for the His concluded that he had no chance of keeping the April 1803, having directed his diplomats to offer to sell it to Louisiana territory, Napoleon to obtain some money for the the young American republic, hoping against the British. war and to gain a grateful ally in his struggle coming which had prevented Napoleon The black uprising in Saint-Domingue, Louisiana, was thus crucial in French control of from consolidating expansion to the west. In Saint-Domingue opening the way for American would not receive any more reinitself, Rochambeau realized that he in May 1803, British forcements. As soon as war was officially declared off supplies, and blockading the island's harbors, cutting ships began forces. support to Dessalines's British agents promised against the British. war and to gain a grateful ally in his struggle coming which had prevented Napoleon The black uprising in Saint-Domingue, Louisiana, was thus crucial in French control of from consolidating expansion to the west. In Saint-Domingue opening the way for American would not receive any more reinitself, Rochambeau realized that he in May 1803, British forcements. As soon as war was officially declared off supplies, and blockading the island's harbors, cutting ships began forces. support to Dessalines's British agents promised --- Page 143 --- 134 The Struggle for Independence, 1802-1806 of the French struggle in Saint-Domingue were grim The last months both sides. As the number of his troops ones for the population on settlements, concentratdiminished, Rochambeau abandoned outlying Outside of the defense of Port-au-Prince and Cap Français. ing on had successfully Jérémie, in a region that white plantation-owners furious whites almost the revolutionary period, defended throughout when he announced that he had lynched the French military commander other of winning the ordered to withdraw his men. With no hope been of terror, directed not only at his war, Rochambeau resorted to a policy within his own lines. He had armed opponents but also at the civilians of mixed race; according to a widely reported long detested the men elaborate party for a group of mixedstory, on one occasion he threw an where the bodies of their women and then took them into a room race brothers had been laid out. He accused the murdered husbands and him, and had a Cap Français merwhites of not doing enough to help tax to help support the chant who had objected to paying an emergency Dessalines shot. Black prisoners were executed en masse, provoking army hundreds of captured French soldiers. An English to retaliate by hanging the last months of the war accused officer who observed some of prisoners apart. 23 Rochambeau of unleashing savage dogs to tear helpless continued to Rochambeau As the French hopes of victory collapsed, for his officers and to pursue throw elaborate balls and entertainments Leonora Sansay, whose courtship with a married woman, a very public Français, Secret History, or The Horrors novel about the last days of Cap of life in the vividly recreates the bizarre atmosphere of Saint-Domingue, doomed city? Port-au-Prince on 9 October 1803. On 18 The French abandoned defeated the French at the battle of November 1803, Dessalines's forces defenseless. Seeing that Vertières outside of Cap Français, leaving the city negotiated a surGeneral Rochambeau further resistance was hopeless, themselves up to the render; he and his troops were allowed to give them back to the harbor, who took British naval forces blockading ill-advised effort to reimpose French England as prisoners. Napoleon's had cost the lives of some 50,000 authority in Saint-Domingue or number of soldiers and sailors, and perhaps an equal greater French and civilians. The debacle was the fighters on the side of the insurgents since the early years of the revoworst defeat a French army had suffered would encounter in lution, and it foreshadowed the disasters Napoleon dictated after his after 1808 and in Russia in 1812. In his memoirs, Spain who took British naval forces blockading ill-advised effort to reimpose French England as prisoners. Napoleon's had cost the lives of some 50,000 authority in Saint-Domingue or number of soldiers and sailors, and perhaps an equal greater French and civilians. The debacle was the fighters on the side of the insurgents since the early years of the revoworst defeat a French army had suffered would encounter in lution, and it foreshadowed the disasters Napoleon dictated after his after 1808 and in Russia in 1812. In his memoirs, Spain --- Page 144 --- The Struggle for Independence, 1802-1806 would look back on the decision to fall from power in 1815, Napoleon by force as one of his try to impose French authority in Saint-Domingue control over the French greatest mistakes. At the time, however, his tight issue. Within a few prevented the disaster from becoming a public overshadowed press victories over rival European armies years, his stunning in the Caribbean in French minds. the embarrassing failure Creating Haiti remarkable military victory, the black leaders were Having achieved their nation. Aided by educated free faced with the challenge of creating a new documents that borrowed colored secretaries who, ironically, produced they had just defeated, from the bombastic rhetoric of the French heavily drafted an initial proclamation, dated Dessalines and his colleagues in the newspapers in the November 1803, which was widely published would continue many of United States and that suggested that they their independence Toussaint Louverture's policies. While announcing still referred to never to tolerate the return of slavery, they and vowing The three generals the territory by its French name of Saint-Domingue. and Clervaux - the - Dessalines, Christophe, who signed proclamation whites during the fighting and apologized for the deaths of innocent had fled return to their promised to let white property-owners who the lawfulness of the plantations, provided that they "acknowledged these twelve >25 for which we have been spilling our blood years." cause dated 1 January 1804 and issued in the name A subsequent document, radical break with the past of Dessalines alone, announced a more Frenchto legend, it was drafted by a young (Figure 5.3). According who supposedly educated man of mixed race, Louis Boisrond-Tonnerre, we need the insisted that "in order to draw up our act of independence, inkwell, his blood skin of a white to serve as a parchment, his skull as soldiers an of his "indigfor ink, and a bayonet for a pen?" Addressing the would be called Dessalines announced that the country enous army," name for the island ofl Hispaniola. By adopting Haiti, an old Taino Indian identified their new nation with this name, Dessalines and his colleagues rejected not only the island's original inhabitants and symbolically colonization. France but the entire legacy of European Napoleonic had struck a conciliatory Whereas the 29 November 1803 proclamation document lamented to Frenchmen of good will, the new tone,appealing a pen?" Addressing the would be called Dessalines announced that the country enous army," name for the island ofl Hispaniola. By adopting Haiti, an old Taino Indian identified their new nation with this name, Dessalines and his colleagues rejected not only the island's original inhabitants and symbolically colonization. France but the entire legacy of European Napoleonic had struck a conciliatory Whereas the 29 November 1803 proclamation document lamented to Frenchmen of good will, the new tone,appealing --- Page 145 --- LIBERTÉ OU 7 LA MORT. ARMÉE INDIGÈNE Acamny premier Janvier, mil huit cent quatre, le Général en Cbef. de-Tarmée Indigène, accompagné des Généraux, Chefs de l'armée, convoqués à T'effer de prendre les mesures qui doivent tendre au bonheur du pays, Après avoir fait connaitre aux Généraux assemblés, ses véritables intentions, d'assurer à jamais aux Indigènes d'Hayti, un Gouvernement stable, objet de sa plus vive sollicitudes ce qu'il a fait par un disccurs qui, tend à Taire connaitre aux Puissances Etrangères, la résolution de rendre le pays indépendant, et de jouir d'une liberté consacrée par le sang du peuple de cette Ile; et après avoir recueilli les avis, a demandé que chacun des Généraux assemblés prononçât le serment de renoncer à jamais à la France, de mourir plutot que de vivre sous sa domination, ct de combattre jusqu'au dernier soupir pour l'indépendance. e aitre aux Puissances Etrangères, la résolution de rendre le pays indépendant, et de jouir d'une liberté consacrée par le sang du peuple de cette Ile; et après avoir recueilli les avis, a demandé que chacun des Généraux assemblés prononçât le serment de renoncer à jamais à la France, de mourir plutot que de vivre sous sa domination, ct de combattre jusqu'au dernier soupir pour l'indépendance. e Figure 5.3 The Haitian Declaration of Independence, 1804. The discovery of an original printed copy ofthe Haitian Declaration of Independence in 2010, by the American scholar Julia Gaffield, caused great excitement. The Haitian declaration was only the second such act, following the American Declaration of Independence of 1776, and the first to assert the right of a non-white population to govern itself. Source: The National Archives,UK, courtesy of Julia Gaffield. --- Page 146 --- The Struggle for Independence, 1802-1806 still spreads gloom in our country" and denounced that "the French name >> "There are still French people in "the cruelties of this barbaric people." Dessalines wrote, menacingly. our island, and you think yourselves free," in the island of their coming Even as he warned the remaining French the world that Haiti fate, however, Dessalines was careful to reassure "Let our neighinternational crusade against slavery. would not lead an bors breathe in peace, > he said."7 to rid Haiti entirely of Dessalines had already shown that he meant surrender, on 22 French Three days after Rochambeau's the presence. of war who had been too November 1803, he had 800 French prisoners 28 In February leave the island with the rest ofthe army put to death. ill to supervised the massacre of the remaining and March 1804, he personally from city to city to see that his orders white men in the colony, moving of the killings in Jérémie noted, were carried out. As one white survivor in them, "in order the free men of color to take part Dessalines compelled and thus lay all that they might not say afterwards they were innocent blacks alone? >29 Women on the shoulders of the the murders perpetrated but Dessalines eventually decided that and children were initially spared, of his black soldiers balked at they, too, needed to be eliminated. Many had been virtually this order, but by the end of April the white population along a few doctors and other professionals were spared, wiped out. Only Polish soldiers who had comet to Saint-Domingue with a small number of deserted from the army, and a colony of but with Napoleon's expedition allowed to settle in the northwest of the German farmers who had been the massacres secret, island before the revolution. Far from trying to keep "We have announcing Dessalinesjustified them in a public proclamation, outrages for these true cannibals war for war, crimes for crimes, >30 In his given saved country, I have avenged America." outrages. Yes, I have my necessary for Haiti's mind, the killings were a brutal form of Realpolitik, former in the island, the metropole security: as long as there were French between blacks and be able to use them to undermine the unity might people of color. eliminated the remaining French At the same time as he ruthlessly relations with other white population, Dessalines was eager to promote had slavery. The British supported countries, even those that permitted blockading Saintblack forces against the French during the war, the the arrival of supplies and reinforcements; Domingue's ports to prevent trading with the new they and the Americans were happy to continue trade treaty with the and the British even proposed signing a country, there were French between blacks and be able to use them to undermine the unity might people of color. eliminated the remaining French At the same time as he ruthlessly relations with other white population, Dessalines was eager to promote had slavery. The British supported countries, even those that permitted blockading Saintblack forces against the French during the war, the the arrival of supplies and reinforcements; Domingue's ports to prevent trading with the new they and the Americans were happy to continue trade treaty with the and the British even proposed signing a country, --- Page 147 --- 138 The Struggle for Independence, 1802-1806 rejected their demand that Haiti limit although Dessalines new country, nations. 31 Determined to insist on Haiti's equality its trade with other when he learned that Napoleon was with France, Dessalines decided, that the ruler of Haiti should have about the declare himself emperor, a written constitution, the same rank. În May 1805, he promulgated and independent himself emperor, and the country' "sovereign declaring universe." > As Toussaint Louverture had done of all other powers in the is abolished forever" and in 1801, Dessalines emphasized that "slavery Since of skin color, were to have equal rights. that all citizens, regardless children of a single family, whose father any distinction of color 'among Haitians will be known from is the head of state, must necessarily cease, the constitution under the generic name of 'blacks," now on only initiatives; they made Haiti the first announced. These were momentous of slavery and of racial discountry in the world to make the abolition future return of principles. To forestall any tinctions into constitutional them from acquiring property in the whites, the constitution prohibited of the defining principles of the country. This provision became one the occupation of the Haitian independence; its cancellation during twentieth century still rankles by the United States in the early country with many Haitians. stand against slavery and Whereas the 1805 constitution took a strong against it offered the new nation's citizens few protections racial hierarchy, Already, in his declaration of 1 arbitrary rule by their own government.. that "if ever you 1804, Dessalines had warned the population January while receiving those laws that the spirit guarding refused or grumbled you would deserve the fate fate dictates to me for your own good, the your Dessalines's constitution did not have of an ungrateful people document; Catholicism was no moralistic tone of Toussaint Louverture's Dessalines was as hostile longer recognized as the state religion, although had been, and divorce was to the popular cult of vodou as Toussaint Dessalines's plan went explicitly permitted. On the other hand, however, state.A citizen had to be further than Toussaint's in creating a militarized women from full that effectively excluded a "good soldier," a provision divided into six military divisions, and all citizenship, the territory was of the Council of State. Unlike the members generals were automatically for kind of the 1805 document made no provision any 1801 constitution, of the emperor, who was entitled to legislative council to limit the power forces, and name his own make laws, collect taxes, command the armed mentioned a system of Whereas the 1801 constitution had successor. than Toussaint's in creating a militarized women from full that effectively excluded a "good soldier," a provision divided into six military divisions, and all citizenship, the territory was of the Council of State. Unlike the members generals were automatically for kind of the 1805 document made no provision any 1801 constitution, of the emperor, who was entitled to legislative council to limit the power forces, and name his own make laws, collect taxes, command the armed mentioned a system of Whereas the 1801 constitution had successor. --- Page 148 --- The Struggle for Independence, 1802-1806 freedom and had guaranteed the right censorship as a limitation on press silent about civil and of petition, the 1805 constitution was completely continued the system political rights. In separate regulations, Dessalines created. The 1805 constituof forced labor that Toussaint Louverture' had authoritarian tendencies of maintained and even intensified the tion thus had erected. the "Louverturian state" that Dessalines's predecessor A Historic Rupture hardly a model of democracy, it was Although Dessalines's Haiti was of the American rupture in the history nevertheless a revolutionary officer who had visited the island in world. Marcus Rainsford, a British Historical Account of the Black 1799, rushed into print in 1805 with his of what had hapEmpire of Hayti, in order to underline the importance of repelling pened. "It is on ancient record, that negroes were capable writer of modern their enemies, with vigour, in their own country;and a but it assured us of the talents and virtues of these peoples; date has century to : exhibit, a horde remained for the close of the eighteenth the vilest slavery, and at once themselves from of negroes emancipating enacting laws, and commanding armies, filling the relations of society, such as the of Europe," >> he wrote." For white visitors, in the colonies in 1804 and again in American Condy Raguet, who was in Cap Français official who treated 1805, it was a shock to have to appear before a black and importance of a great man addressing visitors "with all the dignity world had whites ever found his inferiors"; nowhere in the Atlantic the destrucaccount emphasized themselves in such a situation. Raguet's in the island, noting the tion caused by the long years of upheaval and the poverty of ruinous condition of the former plantations on "the them, but he also commented the blacks who were now farming in travelling" and which one meets with from the peasantry civility, about the blacks' backwardness. which ran counter to his assumptions and urbanity of towns, he found men with "a degree of politeness In the and he devoted a long chapter to the manners scarcely conceivable," that, in contrast to middle-class women of the country, pointing out enabled to support themwhite women in the United States, "they are through their and to be highly useful to their country selves respectably, what most whites assumed >34 In short, contrary to various employments." if blacks tried to form a country of their own, would necessarily happen blacks' backwardness. which ran counter to his assumptions and urbanity of towns, he found men with "a degree of politeness In the and he devoted a long chapter to the manners scarcely conceivable," that, in contrast to middle-class women of the country, pointing out enabled to support themwhite women in the United States, "they are through their and to be highly useful to their country selves respectably, what most whites assumed >34 In short, contrary to various employments." if blacks tried to form a country of their own, would necessarily happen --- Page 149 --- The Struggle for Independence, 1802-1806 Raguet's letters showed that the new republic of Haiti was a functioning society, with a government, an economy, and a civilization of its own. The long struggle that had begun with the twin uprisings oft the slaves and the free men of color in August 1791 had finally culminated in the creation of an independent black-ruled state. In 1805, however, the future of Haiti remained uncertain. The dictatorial government Dessalines had created depended on the loyalty of the armya and the unity of its commanders, many of whom had been enemies of the newly proclaimed emperor at earlier points in their careers. The conflict of interests between a rural black population eager to pursue their own interests and to manage their own lives, and a governing elite that still dreamed of restoring the profitable plantation system for its own benefit remained a critical problem. Napoleon's army had been defeated and, as long as France remained at war with Britain, there was little possibility ofanother invasion by the country's former rulers, but the European war would not last forever, and Haiti's rulers had to reckon with the prospect that France would some day try to recover the jewel of its overseas empire. For the moment, the other main powers in the Caribbean - Britain, the United States, and the Spanish empire were willing to tolerate the new black nation, but all of them were slave powers that were bound to regard its principles as subversive. While the victory of 1804 had ended the military phase of the Haitian struggle for independence, the fate of the Haitian Revolution would remain unsettled for decades to come. --- Page 150 --- Independence in a Consolidating Hostile World declaration of independence issued on 1 January 1804 Haitian constitution of 1805 are usually seen as the culmiDessalines's be called the Haitian Tan nation of the series of events that has come to almost all of the Revolution. By defeating the French and eliminating inhabitants of Saintthe black and mixed-race white population, the island's old ruling class and opened the Domingue had overthrown from which slavery, the central way for the creation of a new society abolished." The human institution of the old regime, had been completely taken after the decof these achievements was a high one. A survey cost in 1804 put the population at only 380,000, a laration of independence in 1789. Whereas men had always drop of almost a third from the figures before the revolution, outnumbered women among the slave population population, a women made up the majority of the post-independence The vast majority men had been killed in the fighting." sign ofhow many 100,000 in the years from 1791 of the deaths, certainly running to over accounts of 1803, had been among blacks. Despite the exaggerated to at the time, it is probable that the majority of massacres that circulated in 1791 managed to escape to safety the 30,000 whites in the colony well have died, and the during the revolution, but over 10,000 may 1802-3 cost the lives of some French military expeditions of 1792-3 and the free population of soldiers and sailors. The loss of life among the 60,000 to but the men in in 1791 - is harder quantify, color - 28,000 people the at all stages of the revolution group were heavily involved in fighting members of other groups. and presumably paid as heavy a toll as the of the Haitian Revolution, First Edition. Jeremy D. Popkin. A Concise History Published 2012 by Blackwell Publishing Ltd. 0 2012 Jeremy D. Popkin. French military expeditions of 1792-3 and the free population of soldiers and sailors. The loss of life among the 60,000 to but the men in in 1791 - is harder quantify, color - 28,000 people the at all stages of the revolution group were heavily involved in fighting members of other groups. and presumably paid as heavy a toll as the of the Haitian Revolution, First Edition. Jeremy D. Popkin. A Concise History Published 2012 by Blackwell Publishing Ltd. 0 2012 Jeremy D. Popkin. --- Page 151 --- 142 Consolidating Independence in a Hostile World Post-Revolutionary Challenges The long years of fighting from 1791 to 1803 had able damage to property, although this also caused considerthan the victorious blacks, who probably affected the whites more of the costly had no reason to lament the destruction masters' mansions. sugar-processing The machinery on the plantations or of the Port-au-Prince, island's cities, particularly Cap had suffered heavily, Français and still functioning in 1804. The although their port facilities were regime, however, had been infrastructure built under the colonial was in neglected since the start of the poor shape. The irrigation revolution and regions had systems vital for sugar-growing in drier disintegrated, and many roads had deteriorated SO carriages could no longer use them, forcing travelers badlyt that or by foot. The new nation of Haiti thus to go on horseback past: its population would have inherited little from its colonial future. The survivors of the to generate the resources to build its 1791 to 1803 had long years of warfare and disruption from undoubtedlyl been deeply The revolution had ended the changed by their experiences. constantly renewed import of new slaves, thus cutting off the vided. connection with African cultures that By 1803 there were no more newly arrived they had prolife in the Caribbean or the Creole bossales unfamiliar with tion, the distinctions between language. In the course of the revolubetween creoles born in the blacks from different ethnic groups and colony and bossales must as they all participated have becomel blurred the hands of the French. together in the fighting and suffered together at that all Haitians, Dessalines's insistence, in his 1805 constitution, regardless of origin or skin color, now group reflected a certain reality: the revolution formed a single community, although not one had forged a new. national as united as Dessalines had Despite the profound significance of the events of hoped. just for the people of the newly 1804 and 1805, not entire western world, it would be proclaimed nation of Haiti but for the the Haitian Revolution a mistake to think that the story of establishment ended with the victory over the French of new "imagined and the until the middle of the nineteenth community" of Haitian citizens. 2 Not characteristics of Haitian century was it clear what the lasting overtheountrysfature society and politics would look like. Conflict the determined direction soon became SO violent that Dessalines, general who had defeated the For fourteen years, from the French, was assassinated. beginning of 1807 to 1820, Haiti split apart, the Haitian Revolution a mistake to think that the story of establishment ended with the victory over the French of new "imagined and the until the middle of the nineteenth community" of Haitian citizens. 2 Not characteristics of Haitian century was it clear what the lasting overtheountrysfature society and politics would look like. Conflict the determined direction soon became SO violent that Dessalines, general who had defeated the For fourteen years, from the French, was assassinated. beginning of 1807 to 1820, Haiti split apart, --- Page 152 --- Independence in a Hostile World Consolidating blacks and free men of color and between the as the divisions between reasserted themselves in a simmering northern and southern regions state, Haiti might well civil war. Instead of becoming one independent have developed into two rival countries. the future of the experiInternal divisions were not the only threat to French defeat, launched in 1804. Despite the conclusiveness of the ment by people of few whites at the time believed that a society governed a matter of could endure; most assumed that it was just African ancestry succeeded in reasserting control over time before some outside power overlord, refused to recognize the island. France, Haiti's former colonial colonists and government and former the new country's independence, to reoccupy the territory for officials there continued to discuss plans of 1804.1 In the meanseveral decades after the independence declaration central and South America time, the Spanish and Portuguese colonies in but, like the followed Haiti's lead in demanding their own independence, the black-ruled island as an equal United States, they refused to recognize states that now made up the partner in the new world of independent in the world economy by structural changes Americas. Disadvantaged the prosperity of the colonial past, that doomed any hope of recovering that characterby the rising tide of racialist prejudice and marginalized itself condemned to a precariized the nineteenth century, Haiti found it has never really been from which, many would argue, ous existence able to escape. independence, Haiti was protected from In the first years following wars. The British outsideinterferencel because oft the ongoing Napoleonic their France from trying to avenge its defeat. Although navy prevented Haiti's independence, British governments refused to officially recognize foreign trade, embargo act of 1807 banning and, until Thomas Jefferson's trading with the former American merchants were happy to continue Louverture's years in power. French colony, as they had during Toussaint the eastern half of its own The only external danger to Haiti came from the Spanish Toussaint Louverture had occupied this territory, island. in 1801, but when the other French forces colony of Santo Domingo, the end of 1803, the French general Jeansurrendered to Dessalines at remained in control of it. The new Louis Ferrand and his small army forces a serious threat: their considered Ferrand's Haitian government eastern half of the island meant that if possession of the ports in the it would be able to land Napoleon sent a new expedition to attack Haiti, Furthermore, in order to restore agricultural without opposition. this territory, island. in 1801, but when the other French forces colony of Santo Domingo, the end of 1803, the French general Jeansurrendered to Dessalines at remained in control of it. The new Louis Ferrand and his small army forces a serious threat: their considered Ferrand's Haitian government eastern half of the island meant that if possession of the ports in the it would be able to land Napoleon sent a new expedition to attack Haiti, Furthermore, in order to restore agricultural without opposition. --- Page 153 --- Independence in a Hostile World 144 Consolidating maintained slavery there Ferrand production in the Spanish territory, with the Haitians that prisoners taken in fighting and even announced would be considered as slaves. invasion of the Spanish 1805, Dessalines launched an In February whites and people of color, warning them of colony. Ferrand rallied the slave, cruel enemy of all who are their fate if "Dessalines, this rebellious slaves in Santo Domingo were born free," succeeded. Even the 24,000 different kind the Haitians; accustomed to a very reluctant to welcome on the cattle ranches in the of life with a fair amount of independence of forced labor.' they feared being subjected to the Haitian system island and area, Dessalines's forces advanced rapidly through the Nevertheless, The appearance of a squadron laid siege to the capital, Santo Domingo. to make a hasty retreat: he of French warships, however, led Dessalines Determined to French invasion was about to begin. feared that a new resources for such a campaign, he deprive his enemies of any possible Dessalines's ordered the devastation of the Santo Domingo countryside. for him, and Santo Domingo was an embarrassment failure to conquer Haitian retreated allowed the the brutalities committed as the that army the new black nation was country's enemies to reinforce the notion remainedi in control menace to its neighbors. Ferrand's army a dangerous when the population revolted in protest of Santo Domingo until 1809, against the French invasion of Spain. The Assassination of Dessalines of French ships in 1805 was a false alarm; the main threat The appearance from internal conflicts that had been set facing the new country came French. Once he was installed in aside during the struggle against the everyone," the modern however, "Dessalines's policies upset 1804, power, Claude Moïse has written. As early as January Haitian historian decrees meant to limit the pretensions of wealthy Dessalines had issued ofthe generals who had acquired many landowners, a groupthatincluded of the mixed-race elite plantations during the war, as well as members 1799-1800. him during the "war ofthe knives"in who had fought against of the latter group of acting as front men Dessalines accused members their While he for whites who were still hoping to recover properties. also lost the support threatened the privileges of the wealthy, Dessalines the military of the rural cultivateurs by continuing and intensifying wealthy Dessalines had issued ofthe generals who had acquired many landowners, a groupthatincluded of the mixed-race elite plantations during the war, as well as members 1799-1800. him during the "war ofthe knives"in who had fought against of the latter group of acting as front men Dessalines accused members their While he for whites who were still hoping to recover properties. also lost the support threatened the privileges of the wealthy, Dessalines the military of the rural cultivateurs by continuing and intensifying --- Page 154 --- Independence in a Hostile World Consolidating them. Meanwhile, his soldiers grumbled that they discipline imposed on Alexandre Pétion and Étienne were not receiving their pay. In 1806, Dessalines had relied on to drive Gérin, two of the mixed-race generals a conspiracy to overthe French out of the South Province, organized black includfound support from some of the generals, throw him. They of the army, who ing Henry Christophe, the commander-in-chief drawn upt bythe plotters Desalinessone-man rule. A manifesto resented that had suffered under Dessalines's governappealed to all the groups and clothed; cultivators, you will be ment: "Soldiers, you will be paid the of your protected; landowners, you will be guaranteed ambushed possession and killed >4 On 17 October 1806, the conspirators properties." back to Port-au-Prince Dessalines at Pont Rouge as he was travelling closest Province. Several of his supporters, from a trip to the North the hero of the victory at including Capois-la-Mort ("Capois-Death"), Vertières three years earlier, were also killed. unpopuAt the time of his death Dessalines had become extremely a crowd tore his body apart. According lar: after his assassination, madwoman, Défilée-la-folle ("Crazy to legend, it was left to a local and bury them. As time Défilée"), to gather the scattered remains who had rallied the populapassed, however, attitudes toward the man Dessalines became the tion to defeat the French changed. Eventually, the pantheon of vodou only Haitian leader to be incorporated into of the avatars of the where he is recognized as one spirits or Iwa, who had 2 In contrast to Toussaint Louverture, warrior Ogou or Ogun. with the whites and abandoned the hope of coexistence never entirely of declaring independence from who never took the ultimate step of black liberaDessalines has been transformed into a symbol France, Haiti's national anthem, composed in tion and national self-assertion. of independence, is called "La 1904 to mark the hundredth anniversary march! Let there be no Dessalinienne," and its words "United let us masters of our soil!" recall his ambition traitors in our ranks! Let us be and elimithe different groups of the population together of bringing ownership. Whereas Toussaint nating white claims to property world at large, in Haiti it is Louverture remains better known in the defied the Dessalines, "this proud deity whose courage hisJean-Jacques Haitian murderous points of bayonets," as one twentieth-century revolutionary called him, who is seen as the embodiment of the torian with statues and other monuments in the spirit and who is honored country's cities. ors in our ranks! Let us be and elimithe different groups of the population together of bringing ownership. Whereas Toussaint nating white claims to property world at large, in Haiti it is Louverture remains better known in the defied the Dessalines, "this proud deity whose courage hisJean-Jacques Haitian murderous points of bayonets," as one twentieth-century revolutionary called him, who is seen as the embodiment of the torian with statues and other monuments in the spirit and who is honored country's cities. --- Page 155 --- Independence in a Hostile World 146 Consolidating North versus South ofleaders who had organized the assassination ofDessalines The coalition he had imposed, and immediately fell was unable to maintain the unity Henry Christophe, of how to govern the country. apart over the question base was in the north of the country, the black general whose power the head of the government, but assumed that he would now become resisted his effort to assert the southern generals, led by Alexandre Pétion, the constitutional control over their troops. The southern leaders packed document and convention summoned to replace Dessalines's 1805 as which offered Christophe a position rammed through their own plan, real in a Senate that his oppopresident while vesting power a figurehead this plan would have substituted nents would control. Had it succeeded, rule instituted by for the practice of one-man the rule of an oligarchy Dessalines. While the country's Toussaint Louverture and continued by the system elite would have dominated political small property-owning toward military dictatorship under the 1806 constitution, the tendency have been tempered. that had developed during the revolution might constitution and Instead, however, Christophe rejected the proposed Dessalines's military modeled after established his own government, then elected Pétion regime, in the regions he controlled. His opponents As open fighting of the southern part of the country. as the president the Senate transferred developed between the two rival governments, its own version of onemany of its powers to Pétion, thus establishing in the south gave Pétion man rule. In 1816, a new constitution drawn up followed by most Haitian the title of president for life, setting a pattern rulers in the first two-thirds of the nineteenth century. north and Pétion's government in the The split between Christophe's ofthe conflict between in the south has often been described as a revival similar to the conflict blacks and men from the mixed-race population, during the revolution. Toussaint Louverture and André Rigaud between conflict did not entirely follow racial boundaries. As in that period, the the south, including most of Pétion's The majority of the population in inner circle of advisors soldiers, were black, whereas Christophe's mixed race. Nor did either side included a number of educated men of leader named Goman solid block of territory. A black control a Grande Anse at the western tip of the long southern seized control of the forces until 1819, and when the peninsula and held it against Pétion's verture and André Rigaud between conflict did not entirely follow racial boundaries. As in that period, the the south, including most of Pétion's The majority of the population in inner circle of advisors soldiers, were black, whereas Christophe's mixed race. Nor did either side included a number of educated men of leader named Goman solid block of territory. A black control a Grande Anse at the western tip of the long southern seized control of the forces until 1819, and when the peninsula and held it against Pétion's --- Page 156 --- Independence in a Hostile World Consolidating returned from France in 1810, former mixed-race leader André Rigaud movement that was he led much of the South Province in a breakaway Christophe ended by his death in 1811.Meanwhile, for some years only of Pétion in the island's northhad to face a rebellion from supporters advantage over Neither side was able to gain a significant western region. rounds of fighting that broke out along their the other in the periodic valley. Both tried to enlist the frontier in the West Province's Artibonite the island from British, who controlled the seas around support of the but they were happy to keep Haiti their neighboring colony of Jamaica, from unifying condition by preventing either government in a weakened the country under its control. proclaimed itself a republic, While the southern government in 1811, importing Christophe converted the north into a kingdom noble titles to coronation robes from England and awarding elaborate had to deal with the longstanding his main advisors. Both governments ambition to set up their own tension between the rural population's plantation system. farms and the elite's desire to restore the profitable of his because he had a harder time maintaining the loyalty Perhaps somewhat more willing to break up largely black army, Pétion proved and distribute the land to confiscated from white owners the plantations rank-and-file soldiers to set up small family the military, allowing even of the members of farms. He continued to protect the large properties and the result was a society the anciens libres, however, his own group, black, and large landowners, divided between small farmers, mostly of Pétion's policy, which mostly of mixed race. Christophe was critical and tried harder to resulted in a drop in the production of export crops, prevent the breakup of the former plantations. built elaborate the of the monarchy, Christophe After proclamation and a great fortress, La Citadelle, palaces in several parts of the country, renamed Henry) to near Le Cap (which he had Cap in the mountains still stands today, and is now a deter any French invasion. La Citadelle but the peasants consymbol of Haiti's spirit of national independence, height on the stones for its walls up the 3,000-foot scripted to carry labor they had to perform. On which it sits resented the backbreaking efforts than Pétion to improve the other hand, Christophe made greater Born in the British colony education and medical care in his territories. admired the British of Grenada and able to speak English, Christophe ofhis kingdom. considered making English the official language and even with the leaders of the British abolitionist He cultivated contacts adelle but the peasants consymbol of Haiti's spirit of national independence, height on the stones for its walls up the 3,000-foot scripted to carry labor they had to perform. On which it sits resented the backbreaking efforts than Pétion to improve the other hand, Christophe made greater Born in the British colony education and medical care in his territories. admired the British of Grenada and able to speak English, Christophe ofhis kingdom. considered making English the official language and even with the leaders of the British abolitionist He cultivated contacts --- Page 157 --- Independence in a Hostile World 148 Consolidating them to send teachers and doctors to the country. movement and asked basic education for goal, in theory, was to provide Whereas Christophe's pursued an educational policy that the entire population, Pétion's regime schooling for the children of concentrated on providing European-style instruction should be exclusively elite families. The decision that school and set barrier for most of the population, in French created a language in Haiti down to the present day. a pattern that has continued The Price of French Recognition nor Pétion was willing to yield in the conAlthough neither Christophe united in resisting the prospect of a flict dividing the island, both were following the defeat return to French rule. That possibility re-emerged Bourbon monarchy in 1814 and the restoration of the in of Napoleon brother, Louis XVIII. After the peace congress under Louis XVI's Martinique and Guadeloupe again Vienna, Britain, which had occupied returned them to the French, after the resumption of the war in 1803, recogof slavery intact, and all the European powers with their systems and its right to use nized France's continuing claim to Saint-Domingue well in were represented force to recover it. Former plantation-owners of them were optimistic that the French Restoration government; many would agree to put themselves Pétion and his mixed-race supporters under French authority in order to defeat Christophe. however, with them, When French agents tried to open negotiations indignantly rejected any proposals both the rival Haitian governments that had the freedom from slavery and the independence to renounce In 1816 Christophe told one would-be been won at such a high cost. will be unanimous on this point French representative that "the Haitians submit again to the yoke of at least, to fight to extinction rather than the Baron de Vastey, pubFrance and slavery" Christophe's spokesman, of European cololished one oft the first comprehensive condemnations denouncing it as author, indignantly nialism written by a non-white of color throughout nothing more than a conspiracy to oppress people the first success for world. Haiti's independence, he wrote, was only the "five hundred million men, black, yellow and a movement in which the rights and over the surface ofthe globe, are reclaiming >8 brown, spread received from the author of nature' While privileges which they have he did adamant in defending Haitian independence, Pétion was equally olished one oft the first comprehensive condemnations denouncing it as author, indignantly nialism written by a non-white of color throughout nothing more than a conspiracy to oppress people the first success for world. Haiti's independence, he wrote, was only the "five hundred million men, black, yellow and a movement in which the rights and over the surface ofthe globe, are reclaiming >8 brown, spread received from the author of nature' While privileges which they have he did adamant in defending Haitian independence, Pétion was equally --- Page 158 --- Independence in a Hostile World Consolidating French that Haiti might be willing to compensate the suggest to the for their lost lands in order to obtain official former plantation-owners recognition of its independence. would become the basis for Eventually, a version of Pétion's proposal under the but for some years, the acceptance of Haiti's independence, the French government of the colonial lobby in the metropole, pressure the environment around Haiti was changrejected the idea. Meanwhile, its independence in 1804, ing in important ways. When it proclaimed outside of the United States Haiti had been the only American territory invaded Spain that had freed itself from colonial rule. When Napoleon colonies. however, revolts broke out in that country's American in 1808, royal family fled from the French and At the same time, the Portuguese of Brazil. Initially, the took refuge in its South American colony colonies pro- "Americanos" who tried to seize power in the Spanish VII, but king of Spain, Fernando claimed their loyalty to the deposed and to reasmonarchy was restored in 1814 attempted when the Spanish territories, the local leaders who had sert its control over its American demand the right to govern emerged in the intervening years began to themselves. Latin American revolutionaries, Simôn The most important of the in 1816, where he Bolivar, took refuge in Pétion's Haitian republic for helping the authoritarian system of government; in exchange admired that slavery would be abolished if he him, Pétion made Bolivar promise in South America. Addressing succeeded in establishing a free republic nation of Venezuela drawing up a constitution for the new the congress of Haiti in urging them to in 1819, Bolivar referred to the example free and insisting that "one cannot be simultaneously abolish slavery, and the same time the natural law, enslaved except by violating at one the independence of the laws, and the civil laws." Although the political would not be fully established until the major Latin American countries be ended in many of them until early 1820s, and slavery would not that the of colonial rule decades later, it was clear even before then days situation, French were numbered. In the face of this in most of the region unrealistic. dreams of recovering Haiti looked increasingly in Haiti events were also taking place In these same years, important for life of the southern republic in 1816, itself. Pétion, named president Jean-Pierre Boyer, another veteran died in 1818, and was replaced by Pétion, had been involved in the mixed-race military officer who, like in 1791. Boyer launched by members of that group insurrection --- Page 159 --- Le Serment des Ancêtres. Guillaume Guillon Lethière (1760-1832), between the leaders of the Figure 6.1 highlights the agreement reached Dessalines and Alexandre Haitian memory colored movements, Jean-Jacques the way for the final black and free union between the two groups paved In 1806, however, Pétion, in 1802. The 1803 and the independence of Haiti. to the division defeat of the French in of Dessalines, which led Boyer helped organize the assassination made after General Pétion into two rival states. This painting, claim that his regime, domiof the country served to legitimize Boyer's of the reunified Haiti in 1820, minority, was the continuation nated by members of the light-skinned in 1791. struggle for freedom that had begun national, @ RMN/Gerard Blot. Port-au-Prince, Musée Source: of Haiti. to the division defeat of the French in of Dessalines, which led Boyer helped organize the assassination made after General Pétion into two rival states. This painting, claim that his regime, domiof the country served to legitimize Boyer's of the reunified Haiti in 1820, minority, was the continuation nated by members of the light-skinned in 1791. struggle for freedom that had begun national, @ RMN/Gerard Blot. Port-au-Prince, Musée Source: --- Page 160 --- Independence in a Hostile World Consolidating Goman insurrection in 1819, thus succeeded in defeating thel long-lasting under his rule. He also seized the opporbringing the whole of the south the ruler of the that presented itself in 1820, when Christophe, condition, tunity suffered a stroke. In his weakened rival northern kingdom, the outbreak of a mutiny in his own Christophe was unable to prevent rule. When refusal to submit to his authoritarian army, and a general at Sans-Souci, outside committed suicide in his royal palace forces, Christophe moved to occupy the north with his own of Le Cap, Boyer quickly in 1820 to an end (Figure 6.1). bringing the civil war that had begun often by brutal Christophe's remaining loyalists, After eliminating his territory in 1822 by occupying the methods, Boyer further expanded colony of Santo Domingo. eastern part of the island, the former Spanish country than it years Haiti was a much larger For the next twenty-two population. is today, with a substantial Spanish-speaking island under his control made Boyer's success in bringing the whole that there was no realistic possibility it clear to the French government by force. As the former Spanish France's former colony of reconquering America moved toward full independence, colonies in South and Central the "Monroe Doctrine, >) of and as the United States announced a policy, their authorityin the opposing any effort by European powers to impose that Haiti did not French attention shifted to making sure New World, of economic influence. In spite fall into the British or American spheres its trade refusal to recognize independence, of the French government's overlord had increased steadily between Haiti and its former imperial France with half after 1815; by the early 1820s, the island was furnishing the French governof coffee. For domestic reasons, however, ofits supply recognize Haitian independence ment decided that it could not simply white colonists and their for the former without obtaining compensation lobby in French politics. În early heirs, who constituted an influential plan to reimimplemented a controversial 1825, the French government confiscated from them burse former French nobles for the property well leave the former the French Revolution. It could not very during that did not receive anySaint-Domingue colonists as the only group the additional for its losses, but it also did not want to take on thing them. Boyer, forl his part, rejected French suggestions expense of covering allowing France to that Haiti become an official French protectorate, to find a comproit in international affairs, but he was eager represent isolation. Even the newly indemise that would end Haiti's diplomatic France, republics, not wanting to antagonize pendent Spanish-speaking former the French Revolution. It could not very during that did not receive anySaint-Domingue colonists as the only group the additional for its losses, but it also did not want to take on thing them. Boyer, forl his part, rejected French suggestions expense of covering allowing France to that Haiti become an official French protectorate, to find a comproit in international affairs, but he was eager represent isolation. Even the newly indemise that would end Haiti's diplomatic France, republics, not wanting to antagonize pendent Spanish-speaking --- Page 161 --- Independence in a Hostile World 152 Consolidating excluding the country Haiti's independence, refused to acknowledge held in Panama in 1826. from a Pan-American Congress to the to consider paying some compensation Boyer was willing not for their slaves, who, former colonists for their lost lands, although been in 1793 by officials representing he pointed out, had emancipated balked at the terms the French proposed. but he the French government,) finally dispatched a naval To break the deadlock, the French government of 1825. Its commander which arrived in Haiti in the spring squadron, ordinance drafted unilaterally by the French govbrought with him an Haitians. In exchange for that imposed very harsh terms on the ernment Haiti would have to pay an French recognition of its independence, ex-colonists and allow of 150 million French francs to the indemnity halfthe tariffs charged on imports importers of French goods to pay onlyl these commitments, the from other countries. If Haiti did not fulfill of its independFrench reserved the right to withdraw their recognition ultimatum the was warned that if he rejected the French ence. Boyer Port-au-Prince. These terms were SO one-sided French would bombard Nevertheless, them secret from the Haitian population. that Boyer kept but to accept the French conditions, he decided that he had no choice helped the Haitians hoping to revise them later. The French government of the indemnity. loan from French banks to cover the cost negotiate a of the 1825 Arrangement The Consequences proved impossible for Haiti to meet. The terms of the 1825 arrangement and himself still thought Both the French officials who drafted it Boyer the island would and access to the French market, that, given peace it had known in the colonial era. In fact, quickly regain the prosperity had never recovered from the however, sugar production in the island had shifted to new areas, disruption of the revolution. Sugar cultivation efficient methods Cuba and Brazil, where growers used more particularly unwilling to submit to disciplined to process the cane; with a population invest in the industry, Haiti labor in the fields and without resources to boom in coffee prices that with them. In 1825 the could not compete war was about to come to an had followed the end of the Napoleonic the beans and flooded abrupt end as other countries began to produce in default on its loan paythe market. By late 1826 Haiti was already intervention by arguing fended off French threats of direct ments. Boyer uba and Brazil, where growers used more particularly unwilling to submit to disciplined to process the cane; with a population invest in the industry, Haiti labor in the fields and without resources to boom in coffee prices that with them. In 1825 the could not compete war was about to come to an had followed the end of the Napoleonic the beans and flooded abrupt end as other countries began to produce in default on its loan paythe market. By late 1826 Haiti was already intervention by arguing fended off French threats of direct ments. Boyer --- Page 162 --- Independence in a Hostile World Consolidating overthrown Haitian payments would cease that if his government was French military officials urged altogether. At several points in the 1830s, force the Haitians to their government to take stronger action to about but the French government, more concerned fulfill their promises, which France had occupied in 1830, its new colonial venture in Algeria, Haiti and France agreed to a decided against the use of force. In 1838 of the indemnity revised version of the 1825 arrangement. The amount France and the time for repayment stretched out; in return, was reduced intervention in Haiti. In legal finally renounced any threat of military achieved full with this agreement that Haiti finally terms, it was only on the debt continued until recognition of its independence. Payments certified that Haiti had paid off 1883, and the French government finally the indemnity in 1893." 10 was thus forced to purchase As Haitians today point out, their country had won on the recognition of the independence its people terms grudging into debt. Present-day critics see the battlefield by going heavily of "neocolonialism," a imposed on Haiti in 1825 as an early example continue to exploit strategy under which more developed countries formal independence to parts of the world even after conceding black poorer colonies. The spectacle of an impoverished, largely their former off the descendants of former white country having to struggle to pay the date of the bicentennial of slaveowners is certainly an ugly one. As at the approached in 2003, the Haitian president Haitian independence Aristide, launched a campaign time, the radical populist Jean-Bertrand Haiti for the cost of the indemnity to demand that France reimburse interest that Aristide calculated imposed in 1825, plus accumulated 21 billion dollars. the reparations due to his country to some have brought but for you to acknowledge that we "We're not looking for pity, no, has been stolen from us," Aristide the right to recuperate a part of what Aristide's demand, and rejected said.' 11 The French government firmly the issue has been cited as one French irritation with him for raising in Aristide to the United States forcing reason why that country joined much the 1825i indemnity, as opposed leave office in February 2004. How and internal instabilother factors such as the fall of the price of coffee to of Haiti is difficult ity, contributed to the present-day impoverishment better during the Haiti's economic condition was actually to calculate. when it was still making indemnity payments, mid-nineteenth century, when the loan had been paid off but than in the years following 1890, increased influence in the when foreign financial interests gained ide to the United States forcing reason why that country joined much the 1825i indemnity, as opposed leave office in February 2004. How and internal instabilother factors such as the fall of the price of coffee to of Haiti is difficult ity, contributed to the present-day impoverishment better during the Haiti's economic condition was actually to calculate. when it was still making indemnity payments, mid-nineteenth century, when the loan had been paid off but than in the years following 1890, increased influence in the when foreign financial interests gained --- Page 163 --- Independence in a Hostile World 154 Consolidating of the one-sided arrangement country." 12 Nevertheless, the memory call itself"the country of the Rights imposed by France, which likes to SO hard against of Man," on the Haitian people, who had had to struggle demand for those rights, remains a bitter one, and the the French to gain in the wake of the devastating earthreparations has been heard again quake in January 2010. for accepting the onerous terms of In Boyer's mind, the main reason Haiti to break out of the interthe 1825 arrangement was that it enabled been confined since 1804. national isolation in which the country had Haitians traveling its claims to its former colony, Until France abandoned and foreign investors were outside the country had no legal protection other European and reluctant to do business there. After 1825, most Haiti's countries followed France's lead in recognizing Latin American States, under the influence of politicians sovereignty.although the United 1862, in the midst from the southern slave states, refused to do SO until elite, of which of the Civil War. Haiti's small but influential light-skinned restoration of cultural Boyer himself was a member, also welcomed the they were now As in the colonial period, ties with the former metropole. in France. In spite of bitter able to send their children to be educated culture still served as the French memories of the war for independence, "The highest complimodel that educated Haitians wanted to emulate. black is that he resemment which it is possible to offer to a Haytien American visitor in the in his personal manners," an bles a Frenchman educated elite considered themselves 1830s noted.' 13 Members of this for the the country and to serve as "guides" naturally suited to govern who remained illiterate and spoke only majority of the black population, their African ancestry, there Creole. Although all Haitians recognized in the Americas and the were few contacts between the black republic Educated Haitians, continent from which those ancestors had come. western world, establish their status as part of the "civilized" eager to toward the black populations of Africa. shared European prejudices Haiti under President Boyer rule, from 1818 until his overthrow in The quarter-century of Boyer's Haiti's history. periods of political stabilityin 1843, was one ofthelongest of one-man rule begun by Toussaint Boyer followed in the tradition Christophe, and Pétion, and his Louverture and continued byl Dessalines, ians, continent from which those ancestors had come. western world, establish their status as part of the "civilized" eager to toward the black populations of Africa. shared European prejudices Haiti under President Boyer rule, from 1818 until his overthrow in The quarter-century of Boyer's Haiti's history. periods of political stabilityin 1843, was one ofthelongest of one-man rule begun by Toussaint Boyer followed in the tradition Christophe, and Pétion, and his Louverture and continued byl Dessalines, --- Page 164 --- Independence in a Hostile World Consolidating favored the interests of the wealthy, light-skinned government certainly "men of color" The army also descendants of the pre-revolutionary national life. Even after 1825, Boyer continued to play a central role in to ward off a possible French argued that a large military was necessary to tolerate the existinvasion. His control over the army allowed Boyer civil institutions; he parliament and other ence of a largely powerless to back him in any conflict. In knew that he could count on the troops nations of Latin Haiti resembled the newly independent this respect, tended to be controlled byl lighter-skinned propertyAmerica, which also support. depending on military owners and by strongmen in 1826, even longer and more elaborate The Rural Code Boyer issued farm labor begun by Sonthonax than the series of ordinances regulating Louverture and and Polverel in 1793 and carried on by Toussaint distinct classified the rural population as a group Dessalines, officially Boyer also oversaw with limited rights and subject to special regulations. civil and criminal law, introduction of comprehensive codes of the the French law codes enacted under Napoleon. heavily influenced by the French laws that prevented women Among other things, Haiti copied and subjected them to the from owning property in their own name undemocratic features authority of their fathers or husbands. Despite the the "civilized" of its various law codes, Haiti thus took its place among and on paper, at least, the powers of government nations of the period; written laws, even if those laws the rights of citizens were regulated by wrote in As an African American journalist were not always respected. of the "the have a regular and enlightened government 1827, people in its operation than any now republican form - more liberal, perhaps, filled native citizens of existing in Europe The public offices are by and other their and courts, talents and character - they have judges such major European >14 At a time when even otabinahmenatikereunehes and Russia still lacked any form of written powers as Austria, Prussia, Haiti was institutions, post-revolutionary constitution or parliamentary certainly not a "backward" country. with France, The Rural Code was connected to the 1825 arrangement would be that a restoration of the plantation system since Boyer argued crops to pay offthe debt the country necessary to raise income-p producing Boyer was unable In fact, however, like his predecessors, had contracted. of Boyer's laws, rural Haiti continued to enforce his regulations. In spite revolution, in the direction as it had since the beginning of the to evolve, families cultivating crops to feed of a peasant society, with individual constitution or parliamentary certainly not a "backward" country. with France, The Rural Code was connected to the 1825 arrangement would be that a restoration of the plantation system since Boyer argued crops to pay offthe debt the country necessary to raise income-p producing Boyer was unable In fact, however, like his predecessors, had contracted. of Boyer's laws, rural Haiti continued to enforce his regulations. In spite revolution, in the direction as it had since the beginning of the to evolve, families cultivating crops to feed of a peasant society, with individual --- Page 165 --- Independence in a Hostile World 156 Consolidating Successful and producing coffee as a source of cash income. themselves their holdings and built lakous, multi-generational farmers consolidated under the control of a family patriarch. rural households living together Catholicism as the state Although Boyer's regime continued to recognize of the vodou the lakou provided a framework for the practice the religion, remained devoted. Despite rituals to which most of the population standard of living of the rural harsh inequalities in Haitian society, the Caribbean islands, where was better than that in the other population slavery still prevailed. had also developed a small commercial By the early 1820s, Haiti decade, this group's spokesmen middle class. At the beginning of the States, for tariff proteclike business interests in the United campaigned, them from being undersold by foreign competitors. tion that would keep succumbed to pressure: from the British The Boyer government, however, for Haitian export and French to keep tariffs low in exchange purchasing critic, Félix Darfour, crops. In 1822 Boyer had one particularly outspoken of favoring foreigners arrested and shot for accusing the government France in 1825 aggraover its own citizens. The agreement imposed by favorable on foreign commerce by granting vated Haiti's dependence terms to imports from France. of revolutionary uprisings Although both countries were the product to the United States, colonial rule, Haiti cannot fairly be compared the against republics born during the most successful of the new American Before the revolution, the age of revolutions" western hemisphere's had been an extreme example of a slave French colony ofSaint-Domingue done to the majority of the society, in which everything had been prevent of selfliteracy, and the experience population from acquiring property, the importance of slavery, the government. In the United States, despite revolution consisted of free majority of the population at the time of the Farl larger than who had already constructed a thriving civil society. people greater natural resources Haiti, the United States possessed incomparably on a small range of and a diversified economy that was not dependent of the Because of the European origin of most population, export crops. as a full participant in the whitethe United States was quickly accepted in from its dominated world order of the day. Haiti's success emerging that of the measured against revolutionary crisis is more appropriately America and the islands of the other countries of Central and South of the early 1840s, to Caribbean. By those standards, Haiti appeared, as a modest but respectable level of development. have achieved the United States possessed incomparably on a small range of and a diversified economy that was not dependent of the Because of the European origin of most population, export crops. as a full participant in the whitethe United States was quickly accepted in from its dominated world order of the day. Haiti's success emerging that of the measured against revolutionary crisis is more appropriately America and the islands of the other countries of Central and South of the early 1840s, to Caribbean. By those standards, Haiti appeared, as a modest but respectable level of development. have achieved --- Page 166 --- Consolidating Independence in a Hostile World Despite some successes, the Boyer regime did not putting the country on the path to fully succeed in nesses, and the stability and democracy. Its weakin 1843, when underlying tensions in Haitian society, became a group of liberal reformers, frustrated evident tarianism, overthrew his by Boyer'sauthorition that called for the end government. of The reformers drafted a constitua careful balance of military rule, a national government with powers between the and elected local legislature and the president, effect. The governments, but they were never able to put it into population in the Spanish half oft the island tunity to revolt against the Haitian seized the opportious general set up his own occupation begun in 1822, an ambipeasant revolt in the south government in the north, and a major In the face of these demanded a fairer distribution of threats, many of the property. of the country's wealthy elite, reformers, themselves members called for a government headed abandoned their progressive ideas and The Spanish-speaking by a military strongman to restore order. reducing Haiti to its territory of Santo Domingo was lost for good, the present-day. dimensions. The peasant revolt in the south was called, Piquet movement, as had taken root among the showed that democratic ideas revolutionary elites population, but the response of Haiti's postdemonstrated that they were steps in the direction of democracy.' 15 unwilling to take any rule ofa a black general, Faustin By 1847 Haiti had fallen under the in 1848 and instituted the Soulouque, who crowned himself emperor most ruthless known since its independence. dictatorship the country had Claude Moise, author of a fundamental political system, has written study of the history of Haiti's ued to alternate between that, down to the present, Haiti has contintraditions that first regimes that look back to the authoritarian period and that developed during the struggles of the were embodied in Pétion's constitution revolutionary Boyer continued to follow, and the of 1816, which the unsuccessful constitution more liberal ideals incorporated in of 1843. 16 the nineteenth century Haiti's Nevertheless, in the first half of different from that of its former political history was in some ways not that the repeated failure of colonial ruler, France, which also saw III, nephew of the French movements for greater freedom. In 1851 blacks leader who had tried and failed Napoleon of Saint-Domingue back into to force the by overthrowing the democratic slavery, copied Faustin Soulouque earlier and Second Republic established three years proclaiming himself If Haiti other countries in terms ofi its emperor. today has fallen behind ability to provide a good life for its people, different from that of its former political history was in some ways not that the repeated failure of colonial ruler, France, which also saw III, nephew of the French movements for greater freedom. In 1851 blacks leader who had tried and failed Napoleon of Saint-Domingue back into to force the by overthrowing the democratic slavery, copied Faustin Soulouque earlier and Second Republic established three years proclaiming himself If Haiti other countries in terms ofi its emperor. today has fallen behind ability to provide a good life for its people, --- Page 167 --- Independence in a Hostile World 158 Consolidating inherited from conclude that this is solely a result of the legacy we cannot for Haiti's current problems must be its revolution. Instead, the reasons These include sought primarily in more recent historical developments. the poorer classes both internal issues - above all, the failure to integrate were into society at a time when other countries of the population and external ones, notably the role moving toward greater democracy of foreign governeconomic interests and the intervention of foreign United States, which occupied Haiti militarily ments, particularly the intervened directly in the country on several from 1915 to 1934 and has subsequent occasions. The Impact of the Haitian Revolution Haitian Revolution was felt especially in the While the impact of the taken there starting in 1791 island itself, the historic events that had place such a central other parts of the world. Slavery was also affected many Americas that the revolt of 1791 and the institution throughout the 1793 were bound to send shock waves declarations of emancipation in Haitians' victory over the French in throughout the hemisphere. The in 1804 challenged the 1803 and Haiti's declaration of independence higher level of notion that white people, because of their supposedly whole world. Haiti's destined to rule the civilization, were naturally in the years after 1804, despite the success in defending its independence confronting it, made this challenge many internal and external problems and eloquent issue. It is no accident that the most thorough a continuing about black inferiority to be published in the refutation of racist claims Anténor Firmin's Equality of nineteenth century was the Haitian author the Human Races (1885). hopes among slaves elsewhere The Haitian Revolution inspired great States. It generated abolitionists in Britain and the United and among and advocates ofwhite superiority.) Nevertheless, fear among slaveholders oft the Haitian Revolution. It had it is easy to exaggerate the direct impact of the Americas, and it certainly a limited effect on slaveryi in other parts that pervaded the did not stem the tide of racialist pseudo-science and well into the world throughout the nineteenth century western descent in other parts of the Americas did twentieth. People of African other black slave population was look to Haiti as an inspiration, but no free itself. For a long time, the able to imitate the Haitian example and ofwhite superiority.) Nevertheless, fear among slaveholders oft the Haitian Revolution. It had it is easy to exaggerate the direct impact of the Americas, and it certainly a limited effect on slaveryi in other parts that pervaded the did not stem the tide of racialist pseudo-science and well into the world throughout the nineteenth century western descent in other parts of the Americas did twentieth. People of African other black slave population was look to Haiti as an inspiration, but no free itself. For a long time, the able to imitate the Haitian example and --- Page 168 --- Independence in a Hostile World Consolidating and the cultural investment in racial economic interests behind slavery liberating inspiration of the hierarchy proved more powerful than the of the last bastions of Haitian Revolution. Only with the abolition and the in the second half of the nineteenth century American slavery decolonization in the mid-twentieth century did sweeping movement of Revolution as the precursor of a it become possible to see the Haitian new world. of Haitian independence, contact with Even before the achievement of the Americas from Saintblacks who had reached the other parts such as the Coro have helped stimulate slave conspiracies Domingue may and the slave revolt in Curaçao in 1795 and Gabriel's uprisingi in Venezuela of Haitian independrebellion in Virginia in 1800. After the declaration show the necessity British abolitionists cited that event to ence in 1804, knew that they could not import ofbanning the slave trade: if slaveowners would recognize that human chattels, the abolitionists claimed, they new of the slaves they had, and would they needed to improve the treatment without be led on their own to do away with the institution eventually of violent rebellion.) In 1807, eighteen years driving the slaves to the point British Parliament finally after it had first considered the issue, the trade. The and abolished the slave legislation accepted this argument on other countries to committed the British government to put pressure comBritish colonies would not be disadvantaged follow its lead, SO that British insisted that other European pared to their rivals; in 1815, the as part of the condicountries prohibit their citizens from slave trading in the Vienna peace treaty. The United States, in accordance tions imposed constitution that had been passed in 1788, with a provision in its own the of new slaves before the start of the Haitian uprising, cut off import in 1808, as did many of the newly independent from Africa beginning after 1810. Even if the countries that broke away from the Spanish empire British law, however, Haiti stimulate the passage of the events in helped the slave trade was actually ended. Other it took many decades before continued to defy pressure to European countries, most notably Portugal, the number of slaves shipped slave imports. The all-time record for their stop was set in the 1820s, with Brazil as to the Americas in a single year without much destination, and the trade continued to operate ninemajor the 1840s. Not until the second half of the interference through Atlantic slave trade finally halted. teenth century was the effect on the campaign to had little positive If Haitian independence on the institution of slavery end the slave trade, it had even less impact continued to defy pressure to European countries, most notably Portugal, the number of slaves shipped slave imports. The all-time record for their stop was set in the 1820s, with Brazil as to the Americas in a single year without much destination, and the trade continued to operate ninemajor the 1840s. Not until the second half of the interference through Atlantic slave trade finally halted. teenth century was the effect on the campaign to had little positive If Haitian independence on the institution of slavery end the slave trade, it had even less impact --- Page 169 --- 160 Consolidating Independence in a Hostile World itself. Despite the Haitian example, the slave expanded more rapidly in the decades societies of the New World the help of exiled after 1804 than ever before. With Saint-Domingue selves dispersed plantation-owners, who found themthroughout the Americas, new arose in Brazil, Cuba, and Louisiana. sugar-producing centers gees from Saint-Domingue Nowhere was the influence of refuthan 9,000 of them greater than in New Orleans, where - a group that had taken in more almost equally divided refuge Cuba in 1803, among whites, free slaves - arrived together in 1809. people of color, and black Spanish empire's revolt Expelled from Cuba as part of the from against Napoleon, they joined earlier arrivals Saint-Domingue and descendants of the French from Acadia (Nova Scotia) in the 1750s settlers expelled French-flavored culture, to give the region its distinctive As the western world's for continued to grow, more blacks than appetite the product and processing ever were put to forced labor sugar cane. At the same time, Eli raising the cotton gin in 1794, which facilitated Whitney's invention of into fiber ready for spinning, the processing of cotton bolls in the growth of another opened the way for an enormous expansion States, which had been product dependent on slave labor. The United number of Africans the destination for only 4 percent of the total with the shipped to the Americas, rose to become the largest number of black slaves until the country resulted in their Civil War of 1861-5 countries whose emancipation. Cuba and Brazil, the two Latin American created slaveholders benefited the most from the by the independence of Haiti, were also the last opportunities slavery was finally abolished, in 1886 and places where decades after 1804, an independent, 1889 respectively. For eight flourishing slave societies, black-governed Haiti coexisted with Cuba and Puerto Rico, some of them, like the Spanish colonies of from its shores. where slavery was ended in 1873, only a few miles Just as its success did not lead to the immediate the slave trade or slaveryitself in other abolition of either ment of Haitian parts of the world, the achieveindependence in 1804 also did not halt the European colonial empires, but it did help spread of nialism. The Haitian reshape the nature of coloRevolution and the ment in Britain, France, and growth of abolitionist sentithe Americas creating new overseas slave colonies. discouraged any idea of of ways of obtaining the Instead, Europeans began to think aging their production in tropical Africa commodities they wanted by encourdefender of abolition itself. As the abbé Grégoire, the leading during the French Revolution and a staunch world, the achieveindependence in 1804 also did not halt the European colonial empires, but it did help spread of nialism. The Haitian reshape the nature of coloRevolution and the ment in Britain, France, and growth of abolitionist sentithe Americas creating new overseas slave colonies. discouraged any idea of of ways of obtaining the Instead, Europeans began to think aging their production in tropical Africa commodities they wanted by encourdefender of abolition itself. As the abbé Grégoire, the leading during the French Revolution and a staunch --- Page 170 --- Independence in a Hostile World Consolidating wrote in 1815, "Certainly supporter of Haitian independence, civilization to the shores of France could and should have brought she could have Senegal, where, without regrets and without dangers, to the mother colonies with rich soil, and closer created prosperous of which has already escaped from country than the Antilles, a part and progress to what her"7 Under the pretext of bringing prosperity encroached on called "the dark continent," Europeans steadily almost they until by the end of the nineteenth century African autonomy, colonies. One of the all of Africa had been carved up into European intrusions was the need to pretexts Europeans put forward for these introduced various the slave trade. In its place, however, they the suppress African populations to produce forms of forced labor to compel products Europeans wanted. had some influence on patterns The example of Haiti undoubtedly century, the Americas in the nineteenth of black resistance to slaveryin mixed. Black although its effects in this regard, too, were somewhat claim freedom and slaves who succeeded in reaching Haiti could from the United citizens, and some black sailors on ships become they had to learn a new language and new States did SO, although themselves to Haitian life. White officials customs to accommodate that the Haitian example throughout the Americas were convinced conspiracy The leader of the Aponte inspired slave conspiracies. with of the leaders of in Cuba in 1812 had acquired a book portraits Louverture and Henry including Toussaint the Haitian uprising, his followers. 18 According to one of Christophe, and used it to inspire of a slave plot in South Denmark Vesey, the organizer his supporters, in the habit of reading to me all the passages Carolina in 1822, "was > Another member of that related to St. Domingo." in the newspapers had told them "that we were fully able the group testified that Vesey unanimous and courageous, as to conquer the whites, if we were only rebellious slaves people were." >19 Nevertheless, some the St. Domingo than as a model to the Haitian Revolution less as an inspiration saw whose uprisings in the British colobe avoided. The slave insurgents in 1831-2 helped propel the nies of Demerara in 1826 and Jamaica in 1833 were Parliament to abolish slavery in its colonies British their followers from killing whites or destroying careful to prevent made it clear from the start that they sought to their plantations; they their conditions, not to take over or negotiate an improvement in destroy the colonies." 20 . Domingo than as a model to the Haitian Revolution less as an inspiration saw whose uprisings in the British colobe avoided. The slave insurgents in 1831-2 helped propel the nies of Demerara in 1826 and Jamaica in 1833 were Parliament to abolish slavery in its colonies British their followers from killing whites or destroying careful to prevent made it clear from the start that they sought to their plantations; they their conditions, not to take over or negotiate an improvement in destroy the colonies." 20 --- Page 171 --- Independence in a Hostile World 162 Consolidating Haiti in the Eyes of the World them with thoughts of launching their own Whether or not it inspired Revolution certainly gave insurrections, the example of the Haitian In his Appeal to blacks in the rest of the Americas a new sense of pride. David' Walker, often the Coloured Citizens of the World, published in 1829, "the founder of black nationalism, hailed Haiti as glory considered the are men who would be cut of the blacks and terror of tyrants . They combined forces of the whole off to a man, before they would yield to the the idea that world?"21 Despite his admiration for Haiti, Walker opposed but the United States should migrate to the black republic, blacks from had been organized to promote precisely earlier in the 1820s a movement land, where the sons that idea. "Go to that highly favored, and as yet only nation," one well-ordered and flourishing of Africa appear as a civilized, eagerly encouraged the plan, preacher urged." 22 Haitian President Boyer and as many land and support for the emigrants, promising to provide freedmen from the northern and border as 6,000 blacks, most of them island. For most of the emigrants, states, may have made the trip to the Working and living conunfortunately, Haiti proved a disappointment. for them, and they had ditions in the tropical heat were too arduous and culture. The American difficulty adjusting to an unfamiliar language against the mixture of blacks, often devout Protestants, reacted strongly religion in and vodou beliefs that constituted the majority Catholicism black settlement in Haiti was revived Haiti. Talk of promoting American Civil War and the abolition in the late 1850s, until the outbreak of the future in States raised blacks' hopes for a better of slavery in the United their native country. and the existence of an independent While the Haitian Revolution for black populations in the black nation were sources of inspiration whites in the United Americas, they generated fear and concern among Haitian Revolution Through 1804, the events of the States and Europe. both sides of the Atlantic; modern covered in the press on were regularly Georg Hegel's famous scholars suspect that the German philosopher for the relationship" and its consequences analysis of the "master-slave slaves may have been inspired by news consciousness ofboth masters and although Hegel never explicitly about the French defeat in 1803, reports and his comments about black people were generally mentioned Haiti victory of Dessalines and his troops negative. 23 Interest in the unexpected Revolution Through 1804, the events of the States and Europe. both sides of the Atlantic; modern covered in the press on were regularly Georg Hegel's famous scholars suspect that the German philosopher for the relationship" and its consequences analysis of the "master-slave slaves may have been inspired by news consciousness ofboth masters and although Hegel never explicitly about the French defeat in 1803, reports and his comments about black people were generally mentioned Haiti victory of Dessalines and his troops negative. 23 Interest in the unexpected --- Page 172 --- Independence in a Hostile World Consolidating invincible French army resulted in a flurry of pubover the supposedly after 1804, most of them, like Louis lications in the years immediately monster covered with blood and Dubroca's Life ofJ. J. Dessalines, "this published in Paris, unfavorable to the Haitians. Originally crimes," very including a Spanish Dubroca's work was translated into manylanguages, however, interest out in Mexico in 1806. Within a few years, edition put what the modern Haitian American scholar in the subject fell off sharply; of the Haitian Trouillot has called the "silencing" Michel-Rolph Revolution had begun." did retain about the The little the white world's collective memory Passing between 1791 and 1804 was almost entirely negative. events stressed the violence of the black references to them almost invariably reviewing the white A French newspaper, assault on the population. massacres in 1812, wrote that memoir of a survivor of Dessalines's "exceeded all other places in the former colony of Saint-Domingue had it was the theater" thehorrible disasters and the shocking crimes ofwhich defeated because the journalist added, had only been The French army, of Negroes, ten times more numerous it had had to fight "a horrible army as a >25 Haiti was depicted povertythan it was . Post-revolutionary dictators. When the agreement of stricken country subject to military with the country, 1825 allowed them to resume direct communication were disapof slavery, such as the abbé Grégoire, French opponents democratic society pointed to discover that it was not the prosperous Brown, who visited The American author Jonathan they had imagined. concluded that "as a nation the blacks of the country in 1833-4, movement as regards intellectual St. Domingo are in a retrograde exist to this descent and no obstacle seems to prevent improvement, into barbarism. >26 interest in Haiti and in the events of On both sides of the Atlantic, debate about the instituthe Haitian Revolution was tied to the ongoing about racial hierarchy. tion of slavery and to the development of theories author Victor Hugo, Even those opposed to slavery, like the great French black man who is the story of a noble whose first novel, Bug-Jargal, and the white woman they sacrifices his own life to save a white man to condemn the both loved during the Haitian Revolution, felt obliged novel, Revolution. The black hero of Hugo's violence of the Haitian was finally moving to which appeared in 1826 as the French government the leader oftheinsurmake its ban on slave trading effective, reproaches sign of our passage rection, asking "is it necessary . that the only to slavery, like the great French black man who is the story of a noble whose first novel, Bug-Jargal, and the white woman they sacrifices his own life to save a white man to condemn the both loved during the Haitian Revolution, felt obliged novel, Revolution. The black hero of Hugo's violence of the Haitian was finally moving to which appeared in 1826 as the French government the leader oftheinsurmake its ban on slave trading effective, reproaches sign of our passage rection, asking "is it necessary . that the only --- Page 173 --- Independence in a Hostile World 164 Consolidating blaze of fire?"27 In 1840 the former should always be a spot of blood or a his memoir Peter Chazotte published Saint- Domingue plantation-owner to refute what he called "the of his escape from Dessalines's massacres fanatics" who wanted to see nefarious lies propagated by American Gobineau, whose Moral slavery abolished in the United States." Arthur in 1855, was the most and Intellectual Diversity of the Races, published for nearly statement of the theory of white racial superiority influential of independent Haiti is nothing announced that "the history a century, the savage instincts of the population but a long series of massacres Haiti and ofthe revolution that had >29 A negative view of reign supreme. anchored in the white-dominated cultures created it thus became deeply The abolition of slavery in the remainof the United States and Europe. end of the institution in the United ing French colonies in 1848 and the world's interest in Haiti States after the Civil War diminished the outside view but did nothing to alter this prejudicial and its revolutionary past, of the Haitian Revolution. the Haitian Revolution as a Although the white world remembered movement's main leader, time of horrors, it made an exception for the British Romantic poet Toussaint Louverture. As early as 1803, the great in Wordsworth had hailed the black leader, then languishing William for liberty. "Wear in thy bonds a Napoleon's prison, as a martyr "There's not a breathing of urged Toussaint. cheerful brow,"Wordsworth thee: thou hast great allies: / Thy the common wind / That will forget exultations, agonies, / And love, and man's unconquerable friends are in the United States compared Toussaint to mind2 White abolitionists abolitionist William Wells Brown George Washington, although the black Washington out that "Toussaint liberated his countrymen; pointed of his." Even white southerners saluted Toussaint, enslaved a portion the whites in Saint-Domingue primarilyl because ofhis attempts to protect of forced labor on the black and his willingness to impose a system man yet known one of them called him "the only truly great population; of the negro race. >31 the History of the Haitian Revolution Writing the white world was making the Haitian Revolution At the same time as two Haitian authors were writing the a byword for horror and violence, that had led from the slave uprisings first serious histories of the events ners saluted Toussaint, enslaved a portion the whites in Saint-Domingue primarilyl because ofhis attempts to protect of forced labor on the black and his willingness to impose a system man yet known one of them called him "the only truly great population; of the negro race. >31 the History of the Haitian Revolution Writing the white world was making the Haitian Revolution At the same time as two Haitian authors were writing the a byword for horror and violence, that had led from the slave uprisings first serious histories of the events --- Page 174 --- Independence in a Hostile World Consolidating Thomas Madiou's Histoire d'Haiti, pubto the country's independence. Ardouin's Études surl Phistoire d'Haiti, lished in 1847, and. Alexis Beaubrun members of the country's which appeared in 1853, were both written by driven into exile in mixed-race elite who had, ironically, been educated of the early 1840s in Haiti. The two France by the political upheavals claimed that he had written his book authors hated each other Ardouin both are often criticized correct the errors in Madiou's work - and to minority to which they themselves today as apologists for the "mulatto" insisted that his group had a belonged; Ardouin in particular repeatedly blacks. Nevertheless,' both were natural mission to protect and civilize the that would meet the serious works of history determined to produce scholars of the time, and their works standards of the leading European Madiou and Ardouin for research on the subject. are still indispensable documents, as all historians of the subject both relied largely on French documents to show that the black have to do, but they used those different from the bloodthirsty and mixed-race insurgents were far about the country. The history savages depicted in most publications was the story of the of the Haitian uprising, according to Madiou, he owed nothing, with his master, to whom "African . confronting treated, and who takes back the rights the moral force of a being unjustly >32 that he had never consented to yield." Revolution remained minimal Outside of Haiti, interest in the Haitian afterthe major European until well into the twentieth century. Particularlya of Berlin in 1885, had agreed among themselves, at the Congress powers continent into white-ruled colonies, the existence to carve up the African to be nothing more than a of the black-ruled republic of Haiti appeared its involvement in the As the United States increased historical anomaly. was threatened: in 1915 Caribbean region Haiti's very independence Marines landed in the island, beginning a military occupation American descendants of Toussaint Louverture and that lasted until 1934. For the their country taken Jean-Jacques Dessalines, the experience of seeing treated as from a country in which blacks were over by white foreigners For the first time, Haiti's intelsecond-class citizens was a brutal one. culture and began to take lectual class ceased to insist on their European ourselves to believe in their African ancestry. We gradually forced pride the Haitian anthropologist and diplomat we were colored' Frenchmen," on Haitian folklore, So Spoke Jean Price-Mars wrote in his classic essay friends, let us no P'oncle). "For mercy's sake, my the Uncle (Ainsi parla >33 longer scorn our ancestral heritage." which blacks were over by white foreigners For the first time, Haiti's intelsecond-class citizens was a brutal one. culture and began to take lectual class ceased to insist on their European ourselves to believe in their African ancestry. We gradually forced pride the Haitian anthropologist and diplomat we were colored' Frenchmen," on Haitian folklore, So Spoke Jean Price-Mars wrote in his classic essay friends, let us no P'oncle). "For mercy's sake, my the Uncle (Ainsi parla >33 longer scorn our ancestral heritage." --- Page 175 --- Independence in a Hostile World 166 Consolidating Revolution in the historiography of the Haitian A turning point of the British Caribbean author occurred in 1938, with the publication The Black Jacobins. In a vividly C. L. R. James's history of the event, that the black James underlined the vital contribution written narrative, had made to the movement for freedom population of Saint-Domingue His title linked the movement in Saintduring the revolutionary era. France, indicating his convicDomingue to the Jacobins in revolutionary connected and that the tion that the two revolutions had been intimately without for freedom in France itself would not have succeeded after struggle by the blacks in the colony. In the decades the impetus provided of the making of Haitian independence World War II, James's account of European colonies in took on added resonance as the populations the Martiniquan Africa and Asia demanded their freedom. In France, reinAimé Césaire, one of the leading voices of anti-colonialism, author Toussaint Louverture: The French forced James's message in his essay, in 1960." Instead Revolution and the Colonial Question, first published mainstream of world of being seen as an obscure event outside the of Revolution now began to appear as the precursor history, the Haitian throughout the non-western world. modern movements for liberation Scientific and Cultural In 1991 the United Nations Educational, of the outbreak of the Organization (UNESCO) declared the anniversary of freedom. Not of 22-23 August 1791 a world holiday slave insurrection themselves has there been SO much attention since the time of the events from 1791 to 1804. It is now paid to the dramatic upheavals of the years is central to the underwidely recognized that the Haitian Revolution definitions of liberty and standing of the process in which our modern their actions, the equality emerged in the decades around 1800. Through clear that liberty was in the Haitian Revolution made it of participants had to extend to people incompatible with slavery and that equality of the story of The of Haiti is an integral part all races. independence and it stands at the origin movements for independence in the Americas, the history of the anticolonial movement that has now shaped of the Revolution, however, the story of the entire world. Like the French of establishing a demoHaitian Revolution also highlights the challenges Like all the great events cratic society in the wake of a violent upheaval. fundRevolution forces us to confront of world history, the Haitian but about the world in which amental questions, not just about the past, we live. of Haiti is an integral part all races. independence and it stands at the origin movements for independence in the Americas, the history of the anticolonial movement that has now shaped of the Revolution, however, the story of the entire world. Like the French of establishing a demoHaitian Revolution also highlights the challenges Like all the great events cratic society in the wake of a violent upheaval. fundRevolution forces us to confront of world history, the Haitian but about the world in which amental questions, not just about the past, we live. --- Page 176 --- Afterword: The Earthquake Crisis of 2010 and the Haitian Revolution is a sad irony that, just as the story of the Haitian a new visibility in Revolution was I.nn modern tion was suddenly riveted on the consciousness, the world's attenOn 12 2010, country by an enormous January a massive earthquake struck Haiti's catastrophe. Port-au-Prince, killing an estimated 130,000 capital city of damage to buildings, roads, and other people and doing massive disaster cast a cruel installations. The aftermath of this light on the weaknesses of Haiti's tions, as the political instituAid from around government seems unable to shape an effective the world flowed into the response. this influx of support from abroad stricken country, but even could maintain the raised questions about how Haiti independencei it won in 1804 on foreign assistance. As the while relying SO heavily Creole word invented to poorest victims of "goudougoudou," a quake, capture the low, rumbling sound of the struggled to put shattered lives back earthcountry's ruling elites and the together, the gap between the rooted in its historical mass of the population, another legacy to hope that the shock past,yawned of the wider than ever. Some Haitians dared spirit of purpose and unity in January 2010 disaster would generate a new the hopes for a better life that their country, enabling it to truly realize revolutionary had inspired their ancestors the period, and that the outside world during the need to change the unequal would finally recognize the country's resources. Others arrangements that have SO often drained doomed to slide feared, however, that their even further into and to country was talented and educated poverty see even more of its ties abroad. people leave to pursue better personal opportuniA Concise History of the Haitian Revolution, First 0 2012 Jeremy D. Popkin. Published 2012 Edition. Jeremy D. Popkin. by Blackwell Publishing Ltd. their ancestors the period, and that the outside world during the need to change the unequal would finally recognize the country's resources. Others arrangements that have SO often drained doomed to slide feared, however, that their even further into and to country was talented and educated poverty see even more of its ties abroad. people leave to pursue better personal opportuniA Concise History of the Haitian Revolution, First 0 2012 Jeremy D. Popkin. Published 2012 Edition. Jeremy D. Popkin. by Blackwell Publishing Ltd. --- Page 177 --- 168 The 2010 Earthquake Crisis that studying what hapHaiti's needs at the moment are SO urgent from the country's pened there 200 years ago may seem like a diversion hundreds of schools As Haiti struggles to rebuild the real problems. students there do not have the opportunity destroyed in the earthquake, time learning about the events that those in other countries do to spend to the earthquake, of the Haitian Revolution. My own personal response on "Haiti in the to donating money, was to create a course in addition of Kentucky, with the hope of helping Modern World" at the University Haiti and its students there understand something about present-day SO that like students to come out of my course prepared, people. I would in the Haitian reconstruction effort they ift they become directlyinvolved to their work, and SO that, even if will bring a certain cultural sensitivity will be better informed about how they remain in the United States, they for them to underaffect its neighbor. I am eager that country's policies culture in the world today, and that stand that there is a vibrant Haitian victims, while they are an the heartrending stories of Haitian earthquake the entire experience undeniable part of Haitian reality, do not sum up of the country and its people. Haitian Revolution is not irrelCertainly, however, the history of the from the catastrophe of the earthquake. evant to Haiti's efforts to recover from moments when their People of all countries draw inspiration past The problems to meet daunting challenges. ancestors came together but they are not more terrifying than facing Haitians today are massive, 1791, when they launched their those that faced the insurgents in August of colonial slavery and uprising against the solidly entrenched system for sometimes despair of finding effective leadership racism. Haitians could have predicted the talents that their country, but no one, in 1791, Toussaint the humble former slave and unsuccessful plantation-owner Political disunity is a discouraging of Bréda would prove to possess. are not more divisive of Haiti today, but the issues of the present to aspect the rival groups that finally came together than those that separated from the crisis To emerge successfully win the country's independence. Haitians will need to use all of their currently facing their country, struggle for independence is resources. The memory of their country's will draw. one of those sources of strength on which they important to For those of us in the outside world, it remains equally This account of understand the Haitian Revolution and its significance. celebratory has tried to avoid the pitfalls of a purely the Haitian uprising but the issues of the present to aspect the rival groups that finally came together than those that separated from the crisis To emerge successfully win the country's independence. Haitians will need to use all of their currently facing their country, struggle for independence is resources. The memory of their country's will draw. one of those sources of strength on which they important to For those of us in the outside world, it remains equally This account of understand the Haitian Revolution and its significance. celebratory has tried to avoid the pitfalls of a purely the Haitian uprising --- Page 178 --- The 2010 Earthquake Crisis narrative. Nevertheless, readers of it should achievement of the Haitian recognize the tremendous the most revolutionaries. As Laurent Dubois, one of important recent contributors to the of Revolution, has written, the Haitian study the Haitian destruction of slavery in the movement "was a central part of the in the history of Americas, and therefore a crucial moment ing democracy, one that laid the foundation for the struggles for human rights continuthe Haitian everywhere." When we remember that uprising was the only successful slave history, we can appreciate the difficulties revolt in recorded that Dessalines, and the thousands of other Boukman, Toussaint, pated in the revolution had men and women who particithe Haitian Revolution to overcome. At the same time, the of is a sobering reminder to story to see western European civilization those who would like liberty and equality. The as the source of modern ideas about and France who formulated same revolutionary leaders in the United States those ideas in such prepared to fight to the death to maintain eloquent language were throughout the Atlantic world. It the enslavement of blacks constitution of 1801, and was Toussaint Louverture's Haitian revolutionary not the constitutions of the United States and France, that first declared "There can be no slaves territory; servitude is abolished within it in this the equal worth of all human forever." If the recognition of set of values for the beings is to be the basis of a truly universal world, we need to was first acknowledge that this articulated as a result of the of principle descent in the French colony of struggles people of African While scholars outside of Haiti Saint-Domingue. have to the Haitian Revolution in their accorded increasing importance historians from Haiti itself studies of the origins of have sometimes modernity, note. While they recognize that the sounded a more cautionary destruction of slavery, it also legacy of the revolution included the saw the erection of an authoritarian model of the "Louverturian state," today. Writing in 2009, the government whose influence still affects Haiti Hurbon Haitian scholars Michel Hector and regretted that when present-day. Haitian Laënnec their country's revolution, politicians look back at they "take from this violence and a despotic mode of glorious past a cult of and summary executions of government marked by shows of force enemies." >2 Hector's not universally shared, as many of the and Hurbon's views are trated volume Revolutionary contributions to the lavishly illusand Freedoms: A History of Survival, Imagination in Haiti, published in 2006, demonstrate. Strength Nevertheless, and regretted that when present-day. Haitian Laënnec their country's revolution, politicians look back at they "take from this violence and a despotic mode of glorious past a cult of and summary executions of government marked by shows of force enemies." >2 Hector's not universally shared, as many of the and Hurbon's views are trated volume Revolutionary contributions to the lavishly illusand Freedoms: A History of Survival, Imagination in Haiti, published in 2006, demonstrate. Strength Nevertheless, --- Page 179 --- The 2010 Earthquake Crisis their words are a reminder that the meaning of the Haitian movement, like that of other revolutions, cannot be reduced to a simple slogan. Like the heirs of the American and French revolutions, Haitians today, and those who sympathize with their struggles, have a complicated legacy to ponder. --- Page 180 --- Recent Scholarship on the Haitian Revolution - tudents and other readers eager to learn more about the Haitian Revolution are fortunate in being able to take advantage of the enormous increase in scholarship about the subject in the past few decades, as well as of the unprecedented access to primary sources on the topic made possible by the internet. The major contributions to the historical understanding of the events of the years from 1791 to 1804 that have appeared since the mid-1980s have been published primarily in English and French. Since this book is intended primarily for English-speaking readers, the discussion that follows emphasizes publications in that language, but students should be aware of the importance of the many contributions of Haitian and French historians that are still accessible only in French, the most important of which are referenced here. The overwhelming majority of the primary sources on the subject are also available only in French. An invaluable collection of translated primary source documents on the Haitian Revolution is Laurent Dubois and John D. Garrigus, Slave Revolution in the Caribbean 1789-1804 (2006). Jeremy D. Popkin, Facing Racial Revolution: Eyewitness Accounts of the Haitian Uprising (2007), includes excerpts from authors who experienced these events. In 2010, the John Carter Brown Library in Providence, Rhode Island, a worldfamous research library devoted to the early history of the Americas, put all of its extremely rich materials about the Haitian Revolution on line (www.brown.edu/Facilitics/lohn. Carter Brown_Library). Although the majority of these texts are in French, there are a number of items in English as well. Some Haitian Revolution materials are also available A Concise History of the Haitian Revolution, First Edition. Jeremy D. Popkin. 0 2012 Jeremy D. Popkin. Published 2012 by Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Library in Providence, Rhode Island, a worldfamous research library devoted to the early history of the Americas, put all of its extremely rich materials about the Haitian Revolution on line (www.brown.edu/Facilitics/lohn. Carter Brown_Library). Although the majority of these texts are in French, there are a number of items in English as well. Some Haitian Revolution materials are also available A Concise History of the Haitian Revolution, First Edition. Jeremy D. Popkin. 0 2012 Jeremy D. Popkin. Published 2012 by Blackwell Publishing Ltd. --- Page 181 --- Recent Scholarship the Gallica collection on the website of the Bibliothèque online through The events of the Haitian Revolution nationale de France (www.bnf.fr) at the time; most of these covered extensivelyi in the American press were be found online, through the Readex Early American newspapers can nowl Newspapers collection. of the 1980s or early 1990s In retrospect, a number of publications of the Haitian the beginning of a new era in the study signaled ofthe major works issued in those years Revolution, even though most Among those publiattracted little attention when they first appeared. Robert Louis still essential reading on the subject are cations that are Sonthonax: The Lost Sentinel of the Stein's biography, Léger-Félicité Yves Bénot's La Révolution française Republic (1985), French scholar Fick's The Making of Haiti: et la fin des colonies (1987), and Carolyn Below (1991), as well as the Revolution from The Saint-Domingue of David Geggus. Stein rescued numerous research publications and demonstrated his Sonthonax from nearly two centuries of oblivion the Bénot demonstrated central role in the process of emancipation."' of the French of the issue of slavery in the politics importance Fick broke away from the long tradition of accounts Revolution, while Toussaint Louverture, in focused on the role of leaders, particularly in fighting for the role of the mass of the population order to highlight demonstrated the range of unexploited archival its freedom. Geggus and peeled away myths available for the study of the subject, sources around such key moments of the revolution as that had accumulated and Toussaint Louverture's decision the Bois Caïman ceremony of 1791 himself with the French in 1794.2 to ally Haitian Revolution grew rapidly during Interest in the topic of the century, as a new strugthe 1990s and the first decade of the twenty-first the end of the era of the began in Haiti itself after gle for democracy Duvalier and his son Jean-Claude Duvalier in dictatorships of François of the French Revolution brought new 1986, and as the bicentennial about slavery. Building on the attention to that movement's debates Piquet, of Yves Bénot's work, other scholars,such as Jean-Daniel insights des Noirs dans la Révolution française (1789-1795) in his L'Emancipation contradictions of the French revolutionaries' (2002) delved into the hesitations about voting to abolish their actions on slavery, including control over the colony, slavery, as well as Napoleon's attempt to regain and those in between events in Saint-Domingue and the connections French scholars contributed to an France. Bénot and a number of other Piquet, of Yves Bénot's work, other scholars,such as Jean-Daniel insights des Noirs dans la Révolution française (1789-1795) in his L'Emancipation contradictions of the French revolutionaries' (2002) delved into the hesitations about voting to abolish their actions on slavery, including control over the colony, slavery, as well as Napoleon's attempt to regain and those in between events in Saint-Domingue and the connections French scholars contributed to an France. Bénot and a number of other --- Page 182 --- Recent Scholarship of the bicentennial of the emancipaimportant volume on the occasion and 1794 in France, which was tion decrees of 1793 in Saint-Domingue Slavery from Léger-Félicité translated into English as The Abolitions of Marcel Dorigny has Sonthonax to Victor Schoelcher, 1793, 1794, 1848. a number of other collaborative volumes on aspects edited or co-edited available only in of the French abolition movement that are currently to the collective French." Scholars from all over the world contributed The World of the volume edited by David Geggus and Norman Fiering, Haitian Revolution (2009). the New World: The Story of the Haitian Laurent Dubois's Avengers oft overview of the subject in Revolution (2004) was the first comprehensive stimulus to interest in language in many years, and has been a great hisany the earlier one-volume the field. Dubois's book has largely replaced The Haitian Revolution tories of the revolution, such as Thomas Ott, Toussaint although C.L. R. James, The Black Jacobins: 1789-1804 (1973), Revolution (originally published in Louverture and the San Domingo imporremains a classic for its insistence on the world-historical 1938), Michel-Rolph Trouillot, Silencing the tance of the Haitian movement. (1995), is an impassioned Past: Power and the Production of History recognition to the denunciation of historians' refusal to give proper significance of the Haitian Revolution. less attention of colonial Saint-Domingue has generated The history of the revolutionary years. The early in recent decades than the history works of Philip K. Boucher, years of the colony are covered in the general Discontent? (2008), France and the American Tropics to 1700: Tropics of in the Americas, Pritchard, In Search of Empire: The French and James Louis Stein's The French Slave Trade in the 1670-1730 (2004). Robert Business (1979) and The French Sugar Eighteenth Century: An Old Regime two fundamental feaBusiness in the Eighteenth Century (1988) explain The Libertine Colony: tures of the colonial economy. Doris Garraway, and Madeleine Dobie, Creolization in the Early French Caribbean (2005), French and Slavery in Eighteenth-Century Trading Places: Colonization akenaiteartmieet Olnatetuebeebeserd "There Are No Slaves in France": The French literature, and Sue Peabody, (1996), outlines Political Culture of Race and Slaveryi in the Ancien Régime toward blacks in the metropole. James E. McClellan, official French policy in the Old Regime (1992), deals Colonialism and Science: Saint-Domingue intellectual life in the colony. The French with the development of white blanches à aux historian Charles Frostin's Les Révoltes Saint-Domingue lnatetuebeebeserd "There Are No Slaves in France": The French literature, and Sue Peabody, (1996), outlines Political Culture of Race and Slaveryi in the Ancien Régime toward blacks in the metropole. James E. McClellan, official French policy in the Old Regime (1992), deals Colonialism and Science: Saint-Domingue intellectual life in the colony. The French with the development of white blanches à aux historian Charles Frostin's Les Révoltes Saint-Domingue --- Page 183 --- Recent Scholarship of the siècles (1975, reissued 2008) is an essential study XVIIe et XVIIle white colonists' political attitudes. of slave life in the French Caribbean, Neither the fundamental study (XVIle-XVIlle siècles) Gabriel Debien, Les Esclaves aux. Antilles françaises Frédéric Régent, La the more recent survey of the subject by (1974), nor have been translated into English. Jean France et ses esclaves (2007), Death (1981), makes a case Fouchard, The Haitian Maroons: Liberty or Scott, "The Common for the extent of slave resistance, and Julius S. in the Era of the Wind: Currents of Afro-American Communication how news circulated Haitian Revolution," (Ph.D. diss., 1986) explores and 5 Bernard Moitt, Women Slavery among Caribbean slave populations." and Arlette Gautier, Les Soeurs in the French Antilles, 1635-1848 (2001), condition of slave women in the de Solitude (1985), are studies of the the role of the colonies. Recent publications that have highlighted French Saint-Domingue include John free people of color in pre-revolutionary in French Saint-Domingue Garrigus, Before Haiti: Race and Citizenship Free People of Color in Stewart King, Blue Coat or Powdered Wig: (2006), (2001), and the dissertation of French Pre-Revolutionary- Saint Domingue Libres de couleur dans les capitales de scholar Dominique Rogers, "Les à la fin de l'ancien Fortune, mentalités et intégration Saint-Domingue: régime" (1999). of the Haitian Revolution's early years are Many crucial episodes articles, a selection of which illuminated in David Geggus's numerous Studies (2002), but a compreare collected in his Haitian Revolutionary French Revolution prior to hensive study of the colony's reaction to the Jeremy D. Popkin, of the 1791 uprisings is still lacking. the start August Revolution and the Abolition of Slavery You Are All Free: The Haitian the mission of Sonthonax and (2010), provides a detailed account of of 1793, and Polverel, the issuance of the emancipation proclamations the French the way in which events in Saint-Domingue precipitated 1794. Elizabeth Convention's abolition decree of 4 February National Race, Masculinity, and Slave Colwill, "Gendering the June Days: Haitian Studies 15 (2009), Emancipation in Saint Domingue; Journal of in Configuring Creole Citizenship 103-24, and "Enfans de T'Amérique': Studies 15 (2009), 168-79, look at the Press, 1793," Journal of Haitian Judith Kafka, "Action, crucial aspects of the emancipation process. in the South of and Interaction: Slave Women in Resistance Reaction, and Abolition 18 (1997), 48-72, Saint-Domingue, 1793-94," Slavery documents the role of women in the transition to freedom. Saint Domingue; Journal of in Configuring Creole Citizenship 103-24, and "Enfans de T'Amérique': Studies 15 (2009), 168-79, look at the Press, 1793," Journal of Haitian Judith Kafka, "Action, crucial aspects of the emancipation process. in the South of and Interaction: Slave Women in Resistance Reaction, and Abolition 18 (1997), 48-72, Saint-Domingue, 1793-94," Slavery documents the role of women in the transition to freedom. --- Page 184 --- Recent Scholarship of interest in the Haitian Revolution as a collective Until the upsurge of Toussaint Louverture and event that began in the 1980s, biographies and the main form of scholarship on the event, parof Sonthonax were 1801. Robert Louis Stein's Sonthonax ticularly on the years from 1794 to Gérard Laurent's four-volume is a solid guide to the period's politics, and (1965-74) conLe Commissaire Sonthonax à Saint-Domingue work on Toussaint Louverturel has been less well tains much valuablei information. decades. The most comprehensive served than Sonthonax in recent Toussaint Louverture: Un modern account of his life, Pierre Pluchon's was the first biogrévolutionnaire noir d'Ancien Régime (2nd edn., 1989) showing take into account the crucial discovery of documents raphy to years before 1791. While that its subject had become a free man many its author's hostility Pluchon's book is well documented, it is marred by Saintwhom he blames for betraying France by moving to his subject, The most recent biography is that of Domingue toward independence. Toussaint Louverture (2007). It American novelist Madison Smartt Bell, difficulties besetting Haiti that there is no scholarly is a reflection of the letters and papers, many of which edition of Toussaint Louverture's versions from continue to be cited on the basis of inaccurate published by and about nineteenth century. The best selection of documents the in English is George Tyson, Jr., ed., Toussaint Toussaint Louverture Translations of some of his letters and proclamations Louverture (1973). can be found online at has C with General Laveaux louverturefindechtm. His correspondence Toussaint Louverture à travers sa COTbeen published by Gérard Laurent, Slavery, War, and (1794-1798) (1953). David Geggus, respondance 1793-1798 (1982), Revolution: The British Occupation of Saint-Domingue, Laurent Dubois has of the British invasion. explains the consequences events in the smaller French colony of shown how a consideration of about the significance of this Guadeloupe can generate new insights Citizens: Revolution in Saint-Dominguei in his A Colony of middle period French Caribbean, 1787-1804 (2004). and Slave Emancipation in the the struggle The Leclerc expedition and the violence accompanying have been studied more closely than the republican for independence detailed account is that of two Haitian period of 1794 to 1801. The most L'Expédition Leclerc historians, Claude B. Auguste and Marcel B.. Auguste, Leclerc (1937), Paul Roussier, ed., Lettres du Général 1801-1803 (1985). The background to Napoleon's is an essential documentary source. La Démence coloniale sous policy has been outlined in Yves Bénot, clerc expedition and the violence accompanying have been studied more closely than the republican for independence detailed account is that of two Haitian period of 1794 to 1801. The most L'Expédition Leclerc historians, Claude B. Auguste and Marcel B.. Auguste, Leclerc (1937), Paul Roussier, ed., Lettres du Général 1801-1803 (1985). The background to Napoleon's is an essential documentary source. La Démence coloniale sous policy has been outlined in Yves Bénot, --- Page 185 --- 176 Recent Scholarship coloLentz et al., Napoléon, T'esclavage et les Napoléon (1991) and Thierry historian, Philippe Girard, nies (2006). Several articles by an American Bonaparte key episodes from this period: "Napoleon have re-examined 1799-1803," French and the Emancipation Issue in Saint-Domingue, Genocide: Racial War Historical Studies 32 (2009), 587-618, "Caribbean 138-61, < Rebelles with in Haiti, 1802-4," Patterns of Prejudice 39 (2005), 1802-04," Gender Cause: Women in the Haitian War of Independence, a 60-85, and "Birth of a Nation: The Creation of and History 21 (2009), Revolutionary Heritage," Journal of the Haitian Flag and Haiti's French Deborah Jenson, "Dessalines's Haitian Studies 15 (2009), 135-50. Journal of Haitian American Proclamations of Haitian Independence," Haitian declaration of Studies 15 (2009), 72-102, sheds new light on the Politics, Sex and and her book, Beyond the Slave Narrative: independence, Haitian Revolution (2011), provides a more compreManuscripts in the writing from this period. The hensive treatment of Haitian political Haitian Revolution has been the involvement of the United States in the Toussaint's Gordon S. Brown, subject of numerous recent publications. Haitian Revolution (2005), and Tim Clause: The Founding Fathers and the Haitian-American Relations Matthewson, A Proslavery Foreign Policy: overviews of American policy. During the Early Republic (2003), give Haiti and the Making of the Early Ashli White, Encountering Revolution: from Saint-Domingue Republic (2010), studies the impact of refugees to New the 1790s, and Nathalie Dessens, From Saint-Domingue during (2007), explains the refugees' impact Orleans: Migration and Influences Gaspar, eds., A Turbulent Time: in Louisiana. David Geggus and Barry Caribbean (1997), and David The French Revolution and the Greater in the Atlantic World (2001), Geggus, ed., Impact of the Haitian Revolution in various parts of the look at the impact of the Haitian Revolution reactions to Haiti in the United Americas. Studies of ninetenth-century America: include Alfred N. Hunt, Haiti's Influence on Antebellum States and Leon D. Pamphile, Slumbering Volcano in the Caribbean (1988), and Hope (2001). Haitians and African Americans: A Heritage of Tragedy Cultures of Slavery in Modernity. Disavowed: Haiti and the Sibylle Fischer, analyzes reactions to the Haitian Revolution the. Age ofl Revolution (2004), Hegel, Haiti, and Universal History in the Caribbean. Susan Buck-Morss, Haitian Revolution (2009),makes a persuasive case for thei influenceofthel Doris L. Garraway, ed., Tree on the German philosopher Hegel's thought. Revolution in the Atlantic World ofLiberty: Cultural Legacies ofthe Haitian : A Heritage of Tragedy Cultures of Slavery in Modernity. Disavowed: Haiti and the Sibylle Fischer, analyzes reactions to the Haitian Revolution the. Age ofl Revolution (2004), Hegel, Haiti, and Universal History in the Caribbean. Susan Buck-Morss, Haitian Revolution (2009),makes a persuasive case for thei influenceofthel Doris L. Garraway, ed., Tree on the German philosopher Hegel's thought. Revolution in the Atlantic World ofLiberty: Cultural Legacies ofthe Haitian --- Page 186 --- Recent Scholarship (2008), is an important collection of articles on literary legacy of the Haitian Revolution, both in Haiti itself and in the wider world. Haitian history after 1804 has attracted much less attention than the revolutionary period. David Nicholls, From Dessalines to Duvalier: Race, Colour and National Independence in Haiti (new edn., 1996), is a standard account, going into the twentieth century. Hubert Cole, Christophe King ofHaiti (1967), is a biography of one of the post-revolutionary period's key figures, and Mimi Sheller, Democracy after Slavery: Black Publics and Peasant Radicalism in Haiti and Jamaica (2000), examines postrevolutionary democracy. Robert Fatton, Jr., The Roots of Haitian Despotism (2007), explains the impact of the revolutionary era on Haiti's modern political institutions. In French, key publications include Claude Moïse, Constitutions et luttes de pouvoir en Haîti (1804-1987) (1988), Jean-Pierre Brière, Haîti et la France, 1804-1848: La Rève brisée (2008), and Michel Hector and Laënnec Hurbon, eds., Genèse de l'État haîtien (1804-1859) (2009). In addition to historians, novelists have helped to increase interest in the Haitian Revolution. Leonora Sansay's Secret History, 0T, The Horrors of Saint-Domingue, one of the first fictional treatments of the subject, has been republished in an edition edited by Michael J. Drexler (2007). The African American novelist Arna Bontemps, a major figure in the "Harlem Renaissance" of the 1920s and 1930s, dramatized the opening moments of the slave uprising in Drums at Dusk (1939). Cuban novelist Alejo Carpentier's The Kingdom of This World, first published in Spanish in 1949, is a classic that was one of the founding works of the Latin American tradition of "magic realism" in literature. More recently, Madison Smartt Bell's epic trilogy, All Souls' Rising (1995), Master ofthe Crossroads (2000), and The Stone that the Builder Refused (2004), and Isabelle Allende's Island Beneath the Sea (2010), have brought the story of the Haitian Revolution to life for English-speaking readers. (1939). Cuban novelist Alejo Carpentier's The Kingdom of This World, first published in Spanish in 1949, is a classic that was one of the founding works of the Latin American tradition of "magic realism" in literature. More recently, Madison Smartt Bell's epic trilogy, All Souls' Rising (1995), Master ofthe Crossroads (2000), and The Stone that the Builder Refused (2004), and Isabelle Allende's Island Beneath the Sea (2010), have brought the story of the Haitian Revolution to life for English-speaking readers. --- Page 187 --- Notes Abbreviations AN Archives nationales (Paris) CAOM Centre d'Archives d'Outre-Mer (Aix-en-Provence) Introduction Discours fait à l'assemblée nationale, le 3 novembre 1791, 2. 2 Michel-Rolph Trouillot, Silencing the Past: Power and the Production ofHistory (Boston: Beacon Press, 1995). Chapter 1: A Colonial Society in a Revolutionary Era 1 James Pritchard, In Search of Empire: The French in the Americas, 1670-1730 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 424; Paul Butel, Histoire des Antilles françaises (Paris: Perrin, 2007), 184. 2 Justin Girod de Chantrans, Voyage d'un Suisse dans les Colonies d'Amérique, ed. Pierre Pluchon (1785; Paris: Taillandier, 1980), 128. 3 John Thornton, "African Soldiers in the Haitian Revolution, Journal of Caribbean History 25 (1991), 58-80. 4 Anon., "Manuscrit d'un voyage de France à Saint-Domingue:" John Carter Brown Library, cited in Jeremy D. Popkin, Facing Racial Revolution: Eyewitness Accounts of the Haitian Uprising (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007), 38-40. A Concise History of the Haitian Revolution, First Edition. Jeremy D. Popkin. 0 2012 Jeremy D. Popkin. Published 2012 by Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Soldiers in the Haitian Revolution, Journal of Caribbean History 25 (1991), 58-80. 4 Anon., "Manuscrit d'un voyage de France à Saint-Domingue:" John Carter Brown Library, cited in Jeremy D. Popkin, Facing Racial Revolution: Eyewitness Accounts of the Haitian Uprising (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007), 38-40. A Concise History of the Haitian Revolution, First Edition. Jeremy D. Popkin. 0 2012 Jeremy D. Popkin. Published 2012 by Blackwell Publishing Ltd. --- Page 188 --- Notes to pp. 21-38 5 AN, 5 mi 1434, deposition of Mirande, n.d. 6 David Geggus, "Toussaint Louverture:. Avant et apresl'insurrection de 1791," in Mémoire de révolution d'esclaves à Saint-Domingue, ed. Franklin Midy (Montreal: CIDHICA, 2006). 7 Cited in Laurent Dubois and John Garrigus, Slave Revolution in the Caribbean 1789-1804 (New York: Bedford/St. Martin's, 2006), 56. 8 Sue Peabody, "There Are No Slaves in France": The Political Culture of Race and Slaveryin the Ancien Régime (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996), 106-20. 9 Letter of Pierre Céloron de Blainville, 8 May 1785, cited in Gabriel Debien, Les Esclaves aux Antilles Françaises (XVIle-XVIIle siècles) (Basse-Terre and Fort-de-France: Sociétés d'histoire de la Guadeloupe et de la Martinique, 1974), 486. 10 On the debates about slavery and colonial rights during the first stages of the French Revolution, see Jeremy D. Popkin, "Saint-Domingue, Slavery, and the Origins of the French Revolution," in Thomas Kaiser and Dale Van Kley, eds., From Deficit to Deluge (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2011). 11 Courrier de Provence, no. 30 (20-21 Aug. 1789). 12 François Raimond letterbook, 1 Oct. 1789, in Correspondance de Julien Raimond, avec ses frères, de Saint-Domingue, et les pièces qui lui ont été adressés par eux (Paris: Cercle social, Year II [1793]), 4. 13 John Garrigus, Before Haiti: Race and Citizenship in French Saint-Domingue (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006), 248-9. 14 Baron de Beauvois, Idées sommaires sur quelques règlements à faire par l'Assemblée coloniale; par M. le baron de Beauvois, conseiller au Conseilsupérieur du Cap, correspondant de l'Académie royale des Sciences, ci-devant associé de la Société royale des sciences e arts de Saint-Domingue (CapFrançais: Batilliot, 1790), 36-40. Chapter 2: The Uprisings, 1791-1793 1 For the Creole text, see Carolyn Fick, The Making of Haiti: The SaintDomingue Revolution from Below (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1991), 93. The historical evidence about the Bois Caïman ceremonyis carefully presented in David Geggus, "The Bois Caïman Ceremony" in his Haitian Revolutionary Studies (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2002), 81-92. 2 Anon., "La Révolution de Saint-Domingue; cited in Popkin, Facing Racial Revolution: Eyewitness Accounts of the Haitian Uprising (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 2007), 50, 53. omingue Revolution from Below (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1991), 93. The historical evidence about the Bois Caïman ceremonyis carefully presented in David Geggus, "The Bois Caïman Ceremony" in his Haitian Revolutionary Studies (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2002), 81-92. 2 Anon., "La Révolution de Saint-Domingue; cited in Popkin, Facing Racial Revolution: Eyewitness Accounts of the Haitian Uprising (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 2007), 50, 53. --- Page 189 --- Notes to pp. 39-61 3 Gros, "Historick Recital," cited in Popkin, Facing Racial Revolution, 124; Anon., "La Révolution de Saint-Domingue; AN, Col.F 3 141; testimony of Marie Jeanne Jouette, in Popkin, Facing Racial Revolution, 158. 4 Concordat passé entre les citoyens du Port-au-Prince e les citoyens de couleur de la même partie de Saint-Domingue (1791). 5 "Evaluation de la quantité des nègres révoltés dans les dix paroisses en insurrection," AN, D XXV 113, d. 897. 6 Letter of First Civil Commission to Minister of the Navy, 23 Dec. 1791,AN, D XXV 1,d. 2. 7 "La Révolution de Saint-Domingue, cited in Popkin, Facing Racial Revolution, 57. 8 AN, D XXV 1, d.4. 9 Ibid. 10 Bryan Edwards, An Historical Survey oft the Island ofSaint Domingo (London: John Stockdale, 1801), 11. 11 Gelston and Saltonstall letterbook, 28 Sept. 1791, in New York Historical Society. 12 The most accessible version of this letter is Nathalie Piquionne, "Lettre de Jean-François, Biassou et Belair, juillet 1792," Chemins critiques 3 (1997), 206-10. It was originally published in two places in France in 1793: as part of the royalist colonel Cambefort's defense of his conduct in SaintDomingue, and in the anti-slavery journalist Milscent's Créole patriote. 13 Joseph Paul Augustin Cambefort, Mémoire justificatif (1793), pt. 3, p.9. 14 Cited in Antonio del Monte y Tejada, Historia de Santo Domingo, 3 vols. (Trujillo, 1952-3), 3:xii. 15 Biassou to abbé de la Haye, AN, D XXV 5, d. 48. 16 Compte rendu à l'assemblée nationale, par M. Saint-Léger, commissaire civil pour l'isle de Saint-Domingue, le 2 juin 1792, l'an 4e de la liberté (Paris: Imprimerie nationale, 1792), 27. 17 Toussaint Louverture, letter of 8-27 Aug. 1793, AN, AA 55, d. 1511. 18 Sonthonax and Polverel, report to Convention, 18 June 1793, AN, D XXV 5, d. 51. 19 Account A, CAOM, Col. F 3 198. 20 Copy ofl letter from Toussaint and Moïse, 25 June 1793, AN, D XXV 20, d. 200. 21 Samuel G. Perkins, "Sketches of St. Domingo from January, 1785, to December, 1794," Proceedings oft the Massachusetts Historical Society, 2nd ser. 2 (1886), 363, 358-9. 22 Toussaint Louverture, letter of 29 Aug. 1793, AN, AA 53, d. 1490. 23 Fick, The Making of Haiti, 168-82. 24 Cited in Judith Kafka, "Action, Reaction, and Interaction: Slave Women in Resistance in the South of Saint-Domingue, 1793-94," Slavery and Abolition 18 (1997),54. 1785, to December, 1794," Proceedings oft the Massachusetts Historical Society, 2nd ser. 2 (1886), 363, 358-9. 22 Toussaint Louverture, letter of 29 Aug. 1793, AN, AA 53, d. 1490. 23 Fick, The Making of Haiti, 168-82. 24 Cited in Judith Kafka, "Action, Reaction, and Interaction: Slave Women in Resistance in the South of Saint-Domingue, 1793-94," Slavery and Abolition 18 (1997),54. --- Page 190 --- Notes to pp. 67-87 Chapter 3: Republican Emancipation in Saint-Domingue, 1793-1798 1 Laurent Dubois and John D. Garrigus, Slave Revolution in the Caribbean 1789-1804 (New York: Bedford/St. Martin's, 2006), 132. 2 Toussaint Louverture, letter of 18 May 1794, in Gérard Laurent, Toussaint Louverture à travers sa correspondance (1794-1798) (Madrid: Industrias Graficas Espana, 1953), 103. 3 Sonthonax and Polverel to Toussaint Louverture, June 1794,AN, D XXV 23, d. 232. 4 Sonthonax to Laveaux, 8 June 1794, AN, CC 9 A 8. 5 Toussaint Louverture to Laveaux, 13 June 1795, 14 Sept. 1795, and 30 pluviôse Year IV,in Laurent, Toussaint Louverture à travers sa correspondance, 182, 229-30, 317. 6 Toussaint Louverture, proclamation of 25 April 1796, ibid., 381. 7 Toussaint Louverture to Laveaux, 19 July 1794 and 31 Aug. 1796, ibid., 123, 428. 8 Nouvelles politiques (Paris), 12 June 1795. 9 Laurent, Toussaint Louverture à travers sa correspondance, 278. 10 "My Odyssey," cited in Popkin, Facing Racial Revolution: Eyewitness Accounts of the Haitian Uprising (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 2007), 266. 11 Boisyd'Anglas.spech to National Convention,4August 1795,in Réimpression de l'Ancien Moniteur, V. 26, issue of 23 thermidor Year II (10. Aug. 1795). 12 Cited in Robert Louis Stein, Léger-Félicité Sonthonax: The Lost Sentinel of the Republic (Rutherford, NJ: Fairleigh Dickinson Press, 1985), 137. 13 Cited ibid., 168. 14 Toussaint Louverture, open letter to the Directory, cited in Dubois and Garrigus, Slave Revolution, 148-53. 15 Cited ibid., 154-5. 16 Discours prononcé parSonthonax, sur la situation actuelle de Saint-Domingue, 16 pluviose Year VI (Paris: Imprimerie nationale, 1798), 14. 17 Jean Fouchard, LesMarrons du Syllabaire (Port-au-PrinceHenriDeschamps, 1953), 121. 18 Michel-Etienne Descourtilz, Voyages d'un naturaliste (1809), cited in Popkin, Facing Racial Revolution, 274-5. 19 Article from Charlestown newspaper, in Nouvelles politiques (Paris), 29 June 1795. 20 Laurent, Toussaint Louverture à travers sa correspondance, letter of 24 Sept. 1798, 452-4. 21 Cited in Gérard Laurent, Le Commissaire Sonthonax à Saint-Domingue, vol. 2: L'Organisateur (Port-au-Prince: La Phalange, 1965), 117. tilz, Voyages d'un naturaliste (1809), cited in Popkin, Facing Racial Revolution, 274-5. 19 Article from Charlestown newspaper, in Nouvelles politiques (Paris), 29 June 1795. 20 Laurent, Toussaint Louverture à travers sa correspondance, letter of 24 Sept. 1798, 452-4. 21 Cited in Gérard Laurent, Le Commissaire Sonthonax à Saint-Domingue, vol. 2: L'Organisateur (Port-au-Prince: La Phalange, 1965), 117. --- Page 191 --- Notes to pp. 88-103 22 Printed letter, signed Poncignon, 29 ventôse Year V, from Philadelphia, in Bibliothèque nationale, MS n.a.f. 6846 (Sonthonax papers); Nouvelles politiques (Paris), 29 June 1795. 23 Kenneth R. Maxwell, "The Generation of the 1790s and the Idea of LusoBrazilian Empire," in Dauril Alden, ed., Colonial Roots of Modern Brazil (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1973), 120. Chapter 4: Toussaint Louverture in Power, 1798-1801 1 Sabine Manigat, "Les Fondements sociaux de l'état Louverturienne;" in Michel Hector, ed., La Révolution française et Haiti: Filiations, ruptures, nouvelles dimensions, 2 vols. (Port-au-Prince: Société Haîtienne d'histoire et de géographie et Éditions Henri Deschamps, 1995), 1:130-42. 2 Cited in Beaubrun Ardouin, Études sur Phistoire d'Haiti, 11 vols. (1853-60; Port-au-Prince: Dr. François Dalencour, 1958), 3:86. 3 Cited in Christian Schneider, "Le Colonel Vincent, officier du génie à SaintDomingue, Annales historiques de la Révolution française, no. 329 (2002), 101-22. 4 Cited in Gordon S. Brown, Toussaint's Clause: The Founding Fathers and the Haitian Revolution (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2005), 136. 5 Cited in Ardouin, Etudes, 4:14. 6 Stevens, letter of 24 June 1799, in George Tyson, Jr., ed., Toussaint L'Ouverture (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1973), 97. 7 Michel-Etienne Descourtilz, Voyages d'un naturaliste (1809), 3:261, cited in Popkin, Facing Racial Revolution: Eyewitness Accounts ofthe Haitian Uprising (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 2007). 8 Toussaint Louverture, forced labor decree of 12 Oct. 1800, in Tyson, ed., Toussaint Louverture, 52-6. 9 Decree of 25 Nov. 1801, cited in Tyson, ed., Toussaint L'Ouverture, 59-64; Constitution of 1801, cited in Laurent Dubois and John D. Garrigus, Slave Revolution in the Caribbean 1789-1804 (New York: Bedford/St. Martin's, 2006), 168-70. 10 Cited in Tyson, ed., Toussaint L'Ouverture, 84. 11 Cited ibid., 74. 12 Cited in Victor Schoelcher, Vie de Toussaint Louverture (Paris, 1889), 309-10. 13 Descourtilz, Voyages, cited in Popkin, Facing Racial Revolution, 277. 14 Cited in Tyson, ed., Toussaint L'Ouverture, 83. 15 Descourtilz, Voyages, cited in Popkin, Facing Racial Revolution, 278-9. 16 Descourtilz, Voyages, 3:342, cited in Popkin, Facing Racial Revolution. 84. 11 Cited ibid., 74. 12 Cited in Victor Schoelcher, Vie de Toussaint Louverture (Paris, 1889), 309-10. 13 Descourtilz, Voyages, cited in Popkin, Facing Racial Revolution, 277. 14 Cited in Tyson, ed., Toussaint L'Ouverture, 83. 15 Descourtilz, Voyages, cited in Popkin, Facing Racial Revolution, 278-9. 16 Descourtilz, Voyages, 3:342, cited in Popkin, Facing Racial Revolution. --- Page 192 --- Notes to pp. 103-118 17 Cited in Tyson, ed., Toussaint L'Ouverture, 86, 84. 18 Descourtilz, "Caractère des nègres créoles à Saint-Domingue" Voyages, 3:188-234, cited in Popkin, Facing Racial Revolution. 19 Cited in Schneider, "Le Colonel Vincent." 20 Documents in AN, CC9A 27. 21 Emilio Cordero Michel, "Toussaint en Saint-Domingue Espagnol," in Alain Yacou, ed., Saint-Domingue espagnol et la révolution nègre d'Haiti (Paris: Karthala, 2007), 251-7. 22 Decree of 29 Oct. 1801, cited in Schoelcher, Vie de Toussaint L'Ouverture, 287. 23 Cited ibid., 300. 24 Cited ibid., 304. 25 Pierre Pluchon, Toussaint Louverture: Un révolutionnaire noir d'Ancien Régime (1979; 2nd edn., Paris: Fayard, 1989), 406. 26 Pamphile De La Croix, La Révolution d'Haiti (original title Mémoires pour servir à la Révolution de Saint-Domingue), ed. Pierre Pluchon (1819; Paris: Karthala, 2007), 277. 27 Cited in Schoelcher, Vie de Toussaint L'Ouverture, 299. 28 Julius S. Scott, "The Common Wind: Currents of Afro-American Communication in the Era of the Haitian Revolution" (Ph.D. diss., Duke University, 1986), 302. 29 Pluchon, Toussaint Louverture, 253, 435; Laurent Dubois, Avengers of the New World: The Story of the Haitian Revolution (Cambridge, MA: Belknap, 2004), 247. Chapter 5: The Struggle for Independence, 1802-1806 1 Cited in Yves Bénot, La Démence coloniale sous Napoléon (Paris: La Découverte, 1991), 89. 2 Philippe R. Girard, "Napoleon Bonaparte and the Emancipation Issue in Saint-Domingue, 1799-1803," French Historical Studies 32 (2009), 601-2. 3 Paul Alliot, memorandum of 19 prairial Year VIII, AN, CC 9 A 27. 4 Cited in Thierry Lentz et al., Napoléon, l'esclavage et les colonies (Paris: Fayard, 2006), 108. 5 De Taffranchissement des noirs, ou Observations sur la loi du 16 pluviose, an deuxième, et sur les moyens à prendre pour le rétablissement des Colonies, du Commerce et de la Marine, 29. This anonymous pamphlet is catalogued under the date of 1797 in the Bibliothèque nationale de France, but it may have been published in the early years of the Consulate. In any event, the on, l'esclavage et les colonies (Paris: Fayard, 2006), 108. 5 De Taffranchissement des noirs, ou Observations sur la loi du 16 pluviose, an deuxième, et sur les moyens à prendre pour le rétablissement des Colonies, du Commerce et de la Marine, 29. This anonymous pamphlet is catalogued under the date of 1797 in the Bibliothèque nationale de France, but it may have been published in the early years of the Consulate. In any event, the --- Page 193 --- Notes to pP. 119-133 strategy of deception it proposes strongly resembles what Napoleon actually did. 6 "Notes pour servir aux instructions à donner au capitaine général Leclerc," in Lettres du Général Leclerc, ed. Paul Roussier (Paris: Société de l'histoire des colonies françaises, 1937), 263-74. 7 Cited in Gordon S. Brown, Toussaint's Clause: The Founding Fathers and the Haitian Revolution (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2005), 211. 8 Pamphile De La Croix, La Révolution d'Haiti (original title Mémoires pour servir à la Révolution de Saint-Domingue), ed. Pierre Pluchon (1819; Paris: Karthala, 2007), 283. 9 Cited in Hubert Cole, Christophe King of Haiti (1967; New York: Viking, 1970), 84. 10 Leclerc to Napoleon, 19 Feb. 1802, in Lettres du Général Leclerc, ed. Roussier, 102. 11 Cited in Cole, Christophe King of Haiti, 120. 12 Michel-Etienne Descourtilz, Voyages d'un naturaliste (1809), cited in Popkin, Facing Racial Revolution: Eyewitness Accounts of the Haitian Uprising (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 2007), 308. 13 Descourtilz, Voyages, cited ibid., 306; De La Croix, Mémoires, 335. 14 Cited in Victor Schoelcher, Vie de Toussaint Louverture (Paris, 1889), 349. 15 Cited in Claude Wanquet, "Un réquisitoire contre l'abolition de l'esclavage: Les égarements du nigrophilisme ["The Errors of Negrophilia"] de Louis Narcisse Baudry Deslozières (mars 1802)," in Yves Bénot and Marcel Dorigny, eds., Rétablissement de l'esclavage dans les colonies françaises: Aux origines d'Haiti 1802 (Paris: Maisonneuve et Larose, 2004), 43. 16 Leclerc to Napoleon, 26 Sept. 1802, in Lettres du GénéralLeclerc, ed. Roussier, 245-6. 17 Leclerc to Napoleon, 7 Oct. 1802, ibid., 256. 18 Borie papers, Historical Society of Pennsylvania, MS 1602. 19 Elizabeth Colwill, "Bearing Witness to Freedom: Memory Traces, CounterHistories, and the Collective Trauma of Slavery," in Jeremy D. Popkin, ed., Stories of Saint-Domingue, Stories of Haiti: Representations of the Haitian Revolution, 1804-2010 (forthcoming). 20 C.L.R.J James, The Black Jacobins: Toussaint Louverture and the San Domingo Revolution (1938; New York: Vintage, 1963),361. 21 Letter of 23 June 1803, cited in Julia Gaffield, "The good understanding which ought always to subsist between the two islands' : Haiti and Jamaica in the Atlantic World, 1803-1804," William and Mary Quarterly (forthcoming). 22 Popular accounts of the Haitian Revolution often repeat the story that Dessalines created the design for the national flag at the Arcahaye C.L.R.J James, The Black Jacobins: Toussaint Louverture and the San Domingo Revolution (1938; New York: Vintage, 1963),361. 21 Letter of 23 June 1803, cited in Julia Gaffield, "The good understanding which ought always to subsist between the two islands' : Haiti and Jamaica in the Atlantic World, 1803-1804," William and Mary Quarterly (forthcoming). 22 Popular accounts of the Haitian Revolution often repeat the story that Dessalines created the design for the national flag at the Arcahaye --- Page 194 --- Notes to pp. 134-139 conference, by tearing the white strip out of a French tricolor flag, and even name a certain Catherine Flon, "the Haitian Betsy Ross," as the seamstress who sewed the first new flag together. A recent article by Philippe R. Girard, "Birth of a Nation: The Creation of the Haitian Flag and Haiti's French Revolutionary Heritage," Journal of Haitian Studies 15 (2009), 135-50, shows that the bicolor flag was already in use before the Arcahaye conference. 23 The story that Rochambeau trained dogs to kill black prisoners has been questioned in a recent study, Georges H. Lutz, "Un avatar de la domestication canine: Les Chiens à esclaves: 'Buscadores' de Cuba et de SaintDomingue," in Marcel Dorigny, ed., Haiti: Première République noir (Paris: Société française d'histoire d'outre-mer, 2004), 61-81. Lutz argues that the dogs were used, as they had been for years throughout the Caribbean, to track blacks in the mountains, not to kill them. 24 Leonora Sansay ["Mary Hassal"] (1808), Secret History, Or, The Horrors of Saint-Domingue, ed. Michael J. Drexler (Peterborough, Ont.: Broadview Editions, 2007). 25 Proclamation, dated Fort Dauphin, 29 Nov. 1803, in Poulson's Daily Advertiser (Philadelphia), 5 Jan. 1804. Deborah Jenson has drawn attention to the importance of this document in her article, "Dessalines's American Proclamations of the Haitian Independence," Journal of Haitian Studies 15 (2009), 72-102. 26 Cited in Laurent Dubois, Avengers of the New World: The Story of the Haitian Revolution (Cambridge, MA: Belknap, 2004), 298. 27 In 2010 Julia Gaffield discovered the first known printed copy of this declaration in the British National Archives. 28 Lentz et al., Napoléon, l'esclavage et les colonies, 108 ) 163. 29 Peter S. Chazotte, Historical Sketches of the Revolution and the Foreign and Civil Wars in the Island of St. Domingo (New York: Wm. Applegate, 1840), cited in Popkin, Facing Racial Revolution, 355. 30 Cited in Beaubrun Ardouin, Etudes sur Phistoire d'Haiti, 11 vols. (1853-60; Port-au-Prince: Dr. François Dalencour, 1958), 6:16. 31 Gaffield, "The good understanding' 32 Cited in Laurent Dubois and John D. Garrigus, Slave Revolution in the Caribbean 1789-1804 (New York: Bedford/St. Martin's, 2006), 191. 33 Marcus Rainsford, An Historical Account of the Black Empire of Hayti: Comprehending a viewo of the Principal Transactions in the Revolution ofSaint Domingo; with Its Antient and Modern State (London: James Cundee, 1805), pp.x-xi. 34 Condy Raguet, "Memoirs of Hayti," cited in Secret History, ed. Drexler, 293-312. ois and John D. Garrigus, Slave Revolution in the Caribbean 1789-1804 (New York: Bedford/St. Martin's, 2006), 191. 33 Marcus Rainsford, An Historical Account of the Black Empire of Hayti: Comprehending a viewo of the Principal Transactions in the Revolution ofSaint Domingo; with Its Antient and Modern State (London: James Cundee, 1805), pp.x-xi. 34 Condy Raguet, "Memoirs of Hayti," cited in Secret History, ed. Drexler, 293-312. --- Page 195 --- Notes to pp. 141-153 Chapter 6: Consolidating Independence in a Hostile World Jonathan Brown, The History and Present Condition of St. Domingo, 2 vols. (Philadelphia: William Marshall, 1837), 2:149-50. 2 The suggestive notion that nations should be understood as "imagined communities' >) held together by their citizens' conviction that they share an identity with each other comes from the anthropologist BenedictAnderson's classic book, Imagined Communities (London: Verso, 1991). 3 Alain Yacou, "L'Ère de la France en Saint-Domingue espagnol: Le Gouvernement du général Ferrand," 482, and Emilio Cordero Michel, "Dessalines en Saint-Domingue espagnol," 432, both in Alain Yacou, ed., Saint-Domingue espagnol et la révolution nègre d'Haiti (Paris: Karthala, 2007). 4 Claude Moïse, Constitutions et luttes de pouvoir en Haiti (1804-1987), 2 vols. (Montreal: Éditions du CIDHICA, 1988), 1:34-5. 5 Joan Dayan, Haiti, History, and the Gods (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), 17-19. 6 Gerard M. Laurent, Six Etudes sur J. J. Dessalines (Port-au-Prince: Les Presses libres, n.d.), 142. 7 Cited in Hubert Cole, Christophe King of Haiti (1967; New York: Viking, 1970), 235. 8 Cited in David Nicholls, From Dessalines to Duvalier: Race, Colour and National Independence in Haiti, rev. edn. (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1996), 45. 9 Cited in Jeremy Adelman, Sovereignty and Revolt in the Iberian Revolution (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2006), 363. 10 On the 1825 arrangement and its subsequent alterations, see Jean-François Brière, Haiti et la France, 1804-1848: Le Rêve brisé (Paris: Karthala, 2008). 11 Cited in Peter Hallward, Damming the Flood: Haiti, Aristide and the Politics of Containment (London: Verso, 2007), 226. While there is no doubt about the one-sided nature of the arrangement imposed on Haiti by the French, advocates of reparations frequently misrepresent its details. French slaveowners were. specifically barred from claiming compensation for their slaves, as opposed to their landed property, payments were negotiated downward from the original terms, and the last payments were made in the 1880s. The often cited claim that loan payments continued until 1947 results from a confusion between the 1825 loan from France and the repayment of loans made by United States banks during the period of American military occupation of Haiti in 1915-34. These: arrangements, which also put thei interests arrangement imposed on Haiti by the French, advocates of reparations frequently misrepresent its details. French slaveowners were. specifically barred from claiming compensation for their slaves, as opposed to their landed property, payments were negotiated downward from the original terms, and the last payments were made in the 1880s. The often cited claim that loan payments continued until 1947 results from a confusion between the 1825 loan from France and the repayment of loans made by United States banks during the period of American military occupation of Haiti in 1915-34. These: arrangements, which also put thei interests --- Page 196 --- Notes to pp. 154-164 of outside investors ahead of those of the Haitian population, continued until 1947. See Hans Schmidt, The United States Occupation of Haiti, 1915-1934 (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1995), 161-5. 12 Michel Hector, "Jalons pour une périodisation," in Michel Hector and Laennec Hurbon, eds., Genèse de l'État haitien (1804-1859) (Paris: Editions de la Maison des sciences de l'homme, 2009), 37-8. 13 Brown, History and Present Condition, 2:276. 14 Genius of Universal Emancipation, cited in Leon D. Pamphile, Haitians and African Americans: A Heritage of Tragedy and Hope (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2001), 28. 15 On the Piquet rebellion, see Mimi Sheller, Democracy after Slavery: Black Publics and Peasant Radicalism in Haiti and Jamaica (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2000). 16 Moïse, Constitutions et luttes de pouvoir, 1:112. 17 Cited in Christopher Miller, The French Atlantic Triangle: Literature and Culture of the Slave Trade (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2008), 485-6. 18 Ada Ferrer, "Speaking ofHaiti: Slavery, Revolution, and Freedom in Cuban Slave Testimony," in David Geggus and Norman Fiering, eds., The World of the Haitian Revolution (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2009), 237. 19 An Account of the Late Intended Insurrection among a Portion of the Blacks of this City (Charleston: Corporation of Charleston, 1822), 42, 39. 20 Seymour Drescher, Abolition: A History of Slavery and Antislavery (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2009), 255-63. 21 David Walker, Appeal to the Coloured Citizens of the World, ed. Peter P. Hinks (1829; University Park: Penn State University Press, 2000), 23. 22 Cited in Floyd J. Miller, The Search for a Black Nationality: Black Emigration and Colonization 1787-1862 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1975), 79. 23 See Susan Buck-Morss, Hegel, Haiti, and Universal History (Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2009). 24 Michel-Rolph Trouillot, Silencing the Past: Power and the Production of History (Boston: Beacon Press, 1995). 25 Journal de l'Empire, 20 May 1812. 26 Brown, History and Present Condition, 2:288-9. 27 Victor Hugo, Bug-Jargal (Boston: D. C. Heath, 1889), 127. 28 Peter S. Chazotte, Historical Sketches of the Revolution and the Foreign and Civil Wars in the Island of St. Domingo (New York: Wm. Applegate, 1840), cited in Popkin, Facing Racial Revolution: Eyewitness Accounts of the Haitian Uprising (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 2007), 339. 29 Arthur Gobineau, The Moral and Intellectual Diversity of Races, trans. H. Hotz (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott, 1856), 195. . Heath, 1889), 127. 28 Peter S. Chazotte, Historical Sketches of the Revolution and the Foreign and Civil Wars in the Island of St. Domingo (New York: Wm. Applegate, 1840), cited in Popkin, Facing Racial Revolution: Eyewitness Accounts of the Haitian Uprising (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 2007), 339. 29 Arthur Gobineau, The Moral and Intellectual Diversity of Races, trans. H. Hotz (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott, 1856), 195. --- Page 197 --- Notes to pP. 164-172 30 William Wordsworth, "To Toussaint L'Ouverture" (1803), cited in George Tyson, Jr., ed., Toussaint Louverture (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1973), 114. 31 Citations in Alfred N. Hunt, Haiti's Influence on Antebellum America: Slumbering Volcano in the Caribbean (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1988), 93, 89-90. 32 Thomas Madiou, Histoire d'Haiti, 3 vols. (1847; Port-au-Prince: Henri Deschamps, 1989), 1:x. 33 Jean Price-Mars, So Spoke the Uncle (Ainsi parla l'oncle), trans. Magdaline W. Shannon (Washington, DC: Three Continents Press, 1983), 8, 218. 34 Aimé Césaire, Toussaint Louverture: La Révolution française et la question coloniale, 2nd edn. (Paris, 1962). Afterword: The Earthquake Crisis of 2010 Laurent Dubois, Avengers ofthel New World: The Story ofthe Haitian Revolution (Cambridge, MA: Belknap, 2004), 7. 2 Michel Hector and Laënnec Hurbon, "Introduction: Les Fondations," in Michel Hector and Laënnec Hurbon, eds., Genèse de lÉtat haîtien (1804-1859) (Paris: Éditions de la Maison des sciences de l'homme, 2009), 22. For other Haitian writing on the history of the revolutionary era, see the contributions tol Michel Hector, ed., La Révolution française et Haiti: Filiations, Ruptures, Nouvelles Dimensions, 2 vols. (Port-au-Prince: Société Haîtienne d'histoire et de géographie et Editions Henri Deschamps, 1995), and Laënnec Hurbon, ed., L'Insurrection des esclaves de Saint-Domingue (22-23 août 1791). Actes de la table ronde internationale de Port-au-Prince (8 au 10 décembre 1997) (Paris: Karthala, 2000). 3 Cécile Accilien, Jessica Adams, and Elmide Méléance, eds., Revolutionary Freedoms: A History of Survival, Strength and Imagination in Haiti (Coconut Beach, Fla.: Caribbean Studies Press, 2006). Recent Scholarship on the Haitian Revolution 1 Prior to Stein's work, the Haitian historian Gérard M. Laurent had published a study of Sonthonax's career in Saint-Domingue: Le Commissaire Sonthonax à Saint-Domingue, 4 vols. (Port-au-Prince: La Phalange and Imprimerie Adventiste, 1965-74). Another important publication on Sonthonax is Marcel Dorigny, ed., Léger-Félicité Sonthonax: La Première Abolition de l'esclavage. La Révolution française et la Révolution de Saint- t-Domingue (1987; 2nd edn., Paris: Société française d'histoire d'outre-mer, 2005). Le Commissaire Sonthonax à Saint-Domingue, 4 vols. (Port-au-Prince: La Phalange and Imprimerie Adventiste, 1965-74). Another important publication on Sonthonax is Marcel Dorigny, ed., Léger-Félicité Sonthonax: La Première Abolition de l'esclavage. La Révolution française et la Révolution de Saint- t-Domingue (1987; 2nd edn., Paris: Société française d'histoire d'outre-mer, 2005). --- Page 198 --- Notes to pp. 172-174 2 A number of Geggus's articles have been collected in David Geggus, Haitian Revolutionary Studies (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2002). 3 Marcel Dorigny, ed., The Abolitions of Slavery from Léger-Félicité Sonthonax to Victor Schoelcher, 1793, 1794, 1848 (1995; New York: Berghahn, 2003). 4 Marcel Dorigny and Bernard Gainot, eds., La Société des Amis des Noirs 1788-1799: Contribution àl Phistoire del'abolition de l'esclavage (Paris: Éditions UNESCO, 1998); Yves Bénot and Marcel Dorigny, Grégoire et la cause des Noirs (Paris: Société d'histoire d'outre-mer, 2000); Yves Bénot and Marcel Dorigny, eds., Rétablissement de l'esclavage dans les colonies françaises: Aux origines d'Haiti 1802 (Paris: Maisonneuve et Larose, 2004); Marcel Dorigny, Haiti première république noir (Paris: Société française d'histoire d'outre-mer, 2004). 5 Fouchard, a Haitian scholar, was replying to a long article by a French author, Yvan Debbasch, who argued that the extent of marronnage had been exaggerated. See Yvan Debbasch, "Le Marronnage: Essai sur la désertion de l'esclave antillais," Année sociologique 3rd ser. (1961), 1-112, (1962), 117-95. , Haiti première république noir (Paris: Société française d'histoire d'outre-mer, 2004). 5 Fouchard, a Haitian scholar, was replying to a long article by a French author, Yvan Debbasch, who argued that the extent of marronnage had been exaggerated. See Yvan Debbasch, "Le Marronnage: Essai sur la désertion de l'esclave antillais," Année sociologique 3rd ser. (1961), 1-112, (1962), 117-95. --- Page 199 --- Index abolition of slave trade, 4, 159 10 August 1792, revolutionary journée of, abolitionist movement 50, 53 American, 158 29 August 1793, emancipation decree of, British, 4, 147-8, 158-9, 161 French, 24, 26, 27, 47, 66, 172-3 Auguste, Claude B. and Auguste, Marcel Adams, John (president of US), 95, 112 B., 175 Affiches américaines, 20 L'Expédition Leclerc, 175 Africa, 4, 160-1, 165 Agé, Pierre (general), 123 Bahia, 89 All Souls' Rising (by Madison Smartt Bell), banjo (banza), 103 Barbados, 12 Allende, Isabelle, 177 Barbé-Marbois, François (French colonial Island Beneath the Sea, 177 official), 29 Alliot, Paul (white colonist), 105 Basle, treaty of, 75, 95, 106 American Revolution, 2, 5, 25 Baudry Deslozières, Louis Narcisse anciens libres, 90, 98-9 (author), 128 and Boyer's dictatorship, 155 see also racism and Leclerc expedition, 128 Bauvais, Louis-Jacques (general), 69, 76, and Pétion's Republic of Haiti, 146-7 see also 4 April 1792, law of; free people Bayon de Libertat (white colonist), 43 of color; Pétion, Alexandre; Rigaud, Beauvois, chevalier de (pamphleteer), 32 André see also racism Aponte conspiracy (1812), 161 Belair, Charles (general), 127 Appeal to the Coloured Citizens of the Belair, Sanite (wife of Charles Belair), World (by David Walker), 162 4 April 1792, law of, 51-3 Bell, Madison Smartt (author), 7, 175, 177 Ardouin, Alexis Beaubrun (Haitian All Souls' Rising, 7, 177 historian), 165 Master of the Crossroads, 7, 177 Aristide, Jean-Bertrand (president of Stone That the Builder Refused, The, 7, Haiti), 153 atteliers, 14 Toussaint Louverture: A Biography, 175 A Concise History of the Haitian Revolution, First Edition. Jeremy D. Popkin. @ 2012 Jeremy D. Popkin. Published 2012 by Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Beaubrun (Haitian All Souls' Rising, 7, 177 historian), 165 Master of the Crossroads, 7, 177 Aristide, Jean-Bertrand (president of Stone That the Builder Refused, The, 7, Haiti), 153 atteliers, 14 Toussaint Louverture: A Biography, 175 A Concise History of the Haitian Revolution, First Edition. Jeremy D. Popkin. @ 2012 Jeremy D. Popkin. Published 2012 by Blackwell Publishing Ltd. --- Page 200 --- Index Belley, Jean- Baptiste (deputy from Brière, Jean-Pierre (historian), 177 Saint-Domingue), 66-7, 68 (illus.), Rève brisée, La, 177 Brissot, Jacques-Pierre (politician), 26, 32, Bénot, Yves (historian), 172 47-8, 61 Démence coloniale, La, 175 Britain, 54, 148 Révolution française et la fin des colonies, and French colonists, 75 La, 172 and independent Haiti, 143 Biassou, Georges (black insurgent leader), and Napoleon, 106, 111, 117, 119, 133 44, 48-50, 54-5, 59, 65,75 occupation of Saint-Domingue by, 61, see also Jean-François; slave insurrection 64-5, 69, 75, 80, 86, 88, 93 of August 1791 and Toussaint Louverture, 91, 93, 96, Black Jacobins, The (by C. L. R. James), 131, 166, 173 Brown, Gordon S. (historian), 176 Blanchelande, Philibert (governor of Toussaint's Clause, 176 Saint-Domingue), 33, 40, 42, 51-2 Brown, Jonathan (author), 163 Bléigeat, Marie Eugène (wife of Brown, William Wells (abolitionist), 164 Sonthonax), 79 Brunet, Jean-Baptiste (general), 126, 131 Bois Caïman ceremony, 35, 36 (illus.), 37, Buck-Morss, Susan (scholar), 176 Hegel, Haiti, and Universal History, 176 see also Boukman; slave insurrection of Bug- Jargal (by Victor Hugo), 163 August 1791 Bullet, Jeannot, see Jeannot Boisrond-Tonnerre, Louis (politician), 135 Bolivar, Simôn (politician), 149 Cambefort, Joseph (military officer), 50 Bonaparte, Napoleon, see Napoleon Cap Français, 10, 13, 22, 51, 56, 65, 70, Bonaparte, Pauline (wife of General 129, 134, 142, 147 Leclerc), 120 burning of (1802), 122-3 Bontemps, Arna (author), 177 crisis of 20 June 1793 in, 57-9 Drums at Dusk, 177 cultural institutions, 22 Borgne parish, 42 in Directory period, 87 Borie, Jean-Joseph (merchant), 129, 131 and insurrection of August 1791, 40 bossales, 16, 18, 142 Capois-la-Mort (military officer), 145 boucaniers, 12 Carpentier, Alejo (author), 177 Boucher, Philip K. (historian), 173 Kingdom of This World, 177 France and the American Tropics to 1700, Catholic church, 55-6, 73, 109, 138, 156, Borie, Jean-Joseph (merchant), 129, 131 and insurrection of August 1791, 40 bossales, 16, 18, 142 Capois-la-Mort (military officer), 145 boucaniers, 12 Carpentier, Alejo (author), 177 Boucher, Philip K. (historian), 173 Kingdom of This World, 177 France and the American Tropics to 1700, Catholic church, 55-6, 73, 109, 138, 156, Boukman (insurrection leader), 35, 37-8, Cayes, 32, 46, 52, 80,93 Cercle des Philadelphes, 22 see also Bois Caiman ceremony; slave Césaire, Aimé (author), 166 insurrection of August 1791 Chazotte, Peter (author), 164 Boyer, Jean-Pierre (president of Haiti), 41, Christianity, 17-18,55-6, 99 see also Catholic church; Louverture, and 1825 agreement with France, 151-4 Toussaint, and religion dictatorship of, 149-50 Christophe, Henry (general and ruler of emigration of blacks from US and, 162 Haiti), 71, 112, 120 policies of, 154-6 assassination of Dessalines and, 145 Brazil, 4, 47, 89, 149, 152, 159-60 death of, 151 55-6, 99 see also Catholic church; Louverture, and 1825 agreement with France, 151-4 Toussaint, and religion dictatorship of, 149-50 Christophe, Henry (general and ruler of emigration of blacks from US and, 162 Haiti), 71, 112, 120 policies of, 154-6 assassination of Dessalines and, 145 Brazil, 4, 47, 89, 149, 152, 159-60 death of, 151 --- Page 201 --- Index establishes Kingdom of Haiti, 146-7 and slavery, 98 Leclerc expedition and, 122-4, 127, 129, see also Louverture, Toussaint, social 133, 135 policies; social and political policies of, 147-8 ideas of Citadelle, La, 147 Constitution of 1805 (Haitian), 2, 6, "citizens of 20 June 1793," 58 138-9, 141 Civil Commission see also Dessalines, Jean-Jacques, social First Civil Commission (1791-2), 33-4, and political policies of 43-4; see also Mirbeck, Frédéric Constitution of 1806 (Haitian), 146 Ignace de; Roume, Philippe; see also Pétion, Alexandre Saint-Léger, Edmond de Constitution of 1816 (Haitian), 146, Second Civil Commission (1792-4), 48, 52; see also Polverel, Étienne; see also Pétion, Alexandre Sonthonax, Léger-Félicité Constitution of 1843 (Haitian), 157 Third Civil Commission (1796-1801), "Cordon of the West," 42, 70 77, 79, 87; see also Giraud, Marc Coro uprising (in Venezuela), 159 Antoine; Leblanc, Pierre; Raimond, Corsica, 115 Julien; Roume, Philippe; Sonthonax, cotton, growing of (illus.), 15 Léger-Félicité cotton gin, 160 Clervaux, Augustin (general), 122, 129, Council of Peace and Union, 51 Creole language, 16-17 Club Massiac, 28, 30 revolutionary proclamations in, 55 Code Noir, 17-18, 23-4, 26, 55 Crète-a-Pierrot, 124-6 renewal by Sonthonax and Polverel, 55 crisis of 1843 (in Haiti), 157 coffee, 13, 152 Croix-dex-Bouquets, 51 Cole, Hubert (historian), 177 Cuba, 4, 152, 160-1 Christophe King of Haiti, 177 cultivateurs (former black slaves), 60 Colonial Assembly (Saint-Domingue) Boyer regime and, 155-6 Assembly of Saint-Marc (1790), 29 Dessalines and, 144-5 Second Colonial Assembly (1791-2), 37, revolts of, under Toussaint Louverture, 40, 51,52 78, 94, 112-13 see also white colonists see also Saint-Domingue, new society Columbus, Christopher (explorer), 1, 11 in, 98, 103-4, 114 Colwill, Elizabeth (historian), 174 Curaçao, slave revolt in (1795), 159 commandeurs (slave drivers), 14, 60 Committee of Public Safety, 65, 67 Danticat, Edwidge, 7 concordats (between free men of color and Darfour, Félix, 156 white colonists), 41, 45 De La Croix, Pamphile, 101-3, 125 conducteurs, 60 Debien, Gabriel, 174 see also commandeurs Les Esclaves aux Antilles françaises, Congo, 17 Constitution coloniale (1790), 29 21 December 1792,. journée of (in Cap Constitution of the Year VIII (French), Français), 53 Declaration of the Rights of Man and Constitution of 1801 (Haitian), 98-101, Citizen, 3, 27-8, 49, 59 107-11, 169 decolonization, 159, 166 60 Debien, Gabriel, 174 see also commandeurs Les Esclaves aux Antilles françaises, Congo, 17 Constitution coloniale (1790), 29 21 December 1792,. journée of (in Cap Constitution of the Year VIII (French), Français), 53 Declaration of the Rights of Man and Constitution of 1801 (Haitian), 98-101, Citizen, 3, 27-8, 49, 59 107-11, 169 decolonization, 159, 166 --- Page 202 --- Index Défilée-la-Folle, 145 Dutty, Boukman, see Boukman Demerara, 161 Duvalier dictatorship, 172 Dérance, Lamour (guerrilla leader), 123 Descourtilz, Michel-Etienne (author), 102, earthquake of 12 January 2010 (in Haiti), 103, 124 2,7, 167 Desfourneaux, Edme (general), 79 Edwards, Bryan (British official), 46 Dessalines, Jean-Jacques (general and Embargo Act, US 1807), 143 emperor of Haiti), 71, 109, 112, 119, emancipation edicts, see 29 August 1793, 120, 124-5, 132 (illus.) emancipation decree of; 20 June assassination of, 142, 145 1793, crisis of; 16 pluviose An II, British and, 133, 137-8 decree of Constitution of 1805 and, 138-40 emigration movement, of US blacks to declares himself emperor, 138 Haiti, 162 independence of Haiti and, 1, 132-3, Equality of the Human Races (by Anténor 135, 137-8, 140 Firmin), 158 invasion of Santo Domingo by, 144 see also racism Leclerc expedition and, 123-4, 126-7, Estates-General, 26 129, 131-3 Etudes sur P'histoire d'Haiti (by Ardouin), massacre of white population by, 137 memory of, 145 exclusif, 21,25 publications about, 163 social and political policies of, 144 Fatton, Robert (scholar), 177 and "war of the knives," 97 Roots of Haitian Despotism, The, 177 "Dessalinienne, La,145 Fernando VII (king of Spain), 149 Diderot, Denis (author), 25 Ferrand, Jean-Louis (general), 143-4 Directory, 76-7,91-2 Fick, Carolyn (historian), 172 abolition of slavery by, 76-7, 83, 105 The Making of Haiti, 172 coup d'état of 18 fructidor An V and, Firmin, Anténor (author), 158 see also racism 1797 elections and, 82, 92 Fischer, Sibylle (scholar), 176 Dobie, Madeleine (historian), 173 Modernity Disavowed, 176 Trading Places, 173 flag, Haitian, creation of, 133, 184-5n22 Dominican Republic, 2 see also Flon, Cathérine see also Santo Domingo Flon, Cathérine, 184-5n22 Dorigny, Marcel (historian), 173 see also flag, Haitian, creation of Abolitions of Slavery from Léger-Félicité 20 floréal An X, law of, 128 Sonthonax to Victor Schoelcher 1793, see also Napoleon, colonial policy of; 1794, 1848, 173 slavery, Napoleon and restoration of Dubois, Laurent (historian), 169 Forfait, Alexandre (French official), 105, Avengers of the New World, 173 A Colony of Citizens, 175 Fort-Dauphin, 94, 121-2 Slave Revolution in the Caribbean (with see also Fort-Liberté John Garrigus), 171 Fort-Liberté, 122 Dubroca, Louis (pamphleteer), 163 see also Fort-Dauphin Dufay, Louis (deputy from Fouchard, Jean (historian), 174 Saint-Domingue), 66, 116 Marrons de la liberté, Les, 174 World, 173 A Colony of Citizens, 175 Fort-Dauphin, 94, 121-2 Slave Revolution in the Caribbean (with see also Fort-Liberté John Garrigus), 171 Fort-Liberté, 122 Dubroca, Louis (pamphleteer), 163 see also Fort-Dauphin Dufay, Louis (deputy from Fouchard, Jean (historian), 174 Saint-Domingue), 66, 116 Marrons de la liberté, Les, 174 --- Page 203 --- Index France Geggus, David (historian), 173 recognition of Haiti's independence by, Haitian Revolutionary Studies, 174 149, 151-4 Slavery, War, and Revolution, 175 rejection of reparation demands by, World of the French Revolution (with Norman Fiering), 173 relations with Haiti after 1804, 143, 148 Gérin, Étienne (general), 145 free people of color (in Saint-Domingue), Girard, Philippe (historian), 176 22-4 Giraud, Marc Antoine (colonial official), and André Rigaud, 74 and British, 61,75 Girodet-Trioson, Anne-Louis (artist), 67, campaign for rights of, 28, 30,32-4 68 (illus.) casualties during Haitian Revolution, Gobineau, Arthur (author), 164 see also racism and crisis of 20 June 1793, 57 Goman (military leader), 146, 151 discrimination against under colonial Grande Anse, 46, 74,79, 146 regime, 24 Grégoire, Henri (French abolitionist), 82, insurrection of, 5, 40, 43, 45-6, 50-1 104, 117, 128, 160-1, 163 and Savannah campaign, 25 Guadeloupe, 4, 12, 76, 118, 119, 128 and Sonthonax, 53, 56 and Villatte affair, 78 Haiti women of color, 23 after independence, 141-2, 154, 156 see also anciens libres; 4 April 1792, law and anti-colonial movement, 148 of; Boyer, Jean-Pierre; 2 December crisis of 1843 in, 157 1792, journée of; 20 June 1793, crisis division into two states (1807-20), 6, of; Ogé, Vincent; Ogé rebellion; 142-3, 146-7 Pétion, Alexandre; Pinchinat, Pierre; earthquake of 2010 in, 167-8 Rigaud, André geography of, 2 French Revolution, 3, 5, 166 independence of, 6, 137-40, 152-3, 158 Frostin, Charles (historian), 173-4 origins of name, 135 Révoltes blanches à Saint-Domingue, Les, population of (1805), 141 prejudicial views of, 163-4 treaty with France (1825), 6, 152-4, Gabriel's Rebellion Virginia, 1800), 159 186-7nl1 Gaffield, Julia (historian), 136, 185n27 see also Saint-Domingue Galbaud, François-Thomas (general), Haitian Declaration of Independence, 135, 56-8 136 (illus.), 141 Garraway, Doris (scholar), 173 see also Boisrond-Tomnerre, Louis; Libertine Colony, The, 173 Dessalines, Jean-Jacques Tree ofLiberty, The, 176 Haitian Revolution Garrigus, John D. (historian), 171 definition of, 5, 141 Before Haiti, 174 histories of, 165 Slave Revolution in the Caribbean impact of, 5 1789-1804, 171 memory of, 8, 167-9 Gautier, Arlette (historian), 174 neglect of, 6-7,9 Soeurs de Solitude, Les, 174 scholarship on, 171-7 Geffrard, Nicolas (general), 132 Haut du Cap, 57 John D. (historian), 171 definition of, 5, 141 Before Haiti, 174 histories of, 165 Slave Revolution in the Caribbean impact of, 5 1789-1804, 171 memory of, 8, 167-9 Gautier, Arlette (historian), 174 neglect of, 6-7,9 Soeurs de Solitude, Les, 174 scholarship on, 171-7 Geffrard, Nicolas (general), 132 Haut du Cap, 57 --- Page 204 --- Index Hector, Michel (historian), 169, 177 Joux, fort of, 126 Génèse de l'Etat haîtien, 177 see also Louverture, Toussaint, death of Hédouville, Joseph (general), 92-4 Jumécourt, Hanus de (white colonist), 45 Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich 20 June 1793, crisis of, 57-8 (philosopher), 4, 162 see also free men of color, crisis of 20 Hispaniola, 1, 11, 12 June 1793 and; Galbaud, FrançoisHistoire d'Haiti (by Madiou), 165 Thomas; Polverel, Étienne; Historical Account of the Black Empire of Sonthonax, Léger-Félicité Hayti (by Rainsford), 130 (illus.), Kerverseau, François (military officer), Hugo, Victor (author), 163 92-3 Hugues, Victor (colonial official), 76 Kina, Jean (black military leader), 75 Hunt, Alfred N. (historian), 176 King, Stewart (historian), 174 Haiti's Influence on Antebellum America, Blue Coat or Powdered Wig, 174 Hurbon, Laënnec (scholar), 169, 177 lakou, 155 Genèse de l'Etat haitien, 177 lambi (conch shell), 42 Hyacinthe (insurgent leader), 51 land ownership (after abolition of slavery), 84-5 indemnity, paid by Haiti to France, 152-4, Laplume, General, 122 186-7nl1 Latin America "indigenous army," 133 impact of Haitian Revolution in, 4, 47, indigo, 13 89, 149 Interim Commission (1792), 52 independence movements in, 149 relations with Haiti, 143, 151-2, 154 Jacmel, 55, 97 see also Bolivar, Simôn; Brazil Jacobins, 6 Laurent, Gérard (historian), 175 Jamaica, 19, 96, 119, 161 Commissaire Sonthonax à Saintand Haitian Revolution, 46 Domingue, Le, 175 James, C. L. R. (author), 131, 166, 173 Laveaux, Etienne (general), 54, 65, 69, 71, see also Black Jacobins, The 77-8, 81 Jean, Wyclef (musician), 7 Leblanc, Pierre (colonial official), 77 Jean-François (black insurgent leader), 42, Leclerc, Victor- Emmanuel (general), 118, 48-50, 54-5, 59, 65,75 120, 123-4, 126-7, 129 see also Biassou, Georges; slave arrest of Toussaint Louverture by, 126 insurrection of August 1791 death of, 129 Jean-Pierre, Ulrick (artist), 35-6 (illus.) see also Bonaparte, Pauline; Leclerc Jeannot (black insurgent leader), 42 expedition Jefferson, Thomas (president of US), 6, 10, Leclerc expedition (1802-3), 115, 118-19, 112, 119-20, 143 121-9, 130 (illus.) Jenson, Deborah (scholar), 176 defeat of, 133-4, 140 Beyond the Slave Narrative, 176 historiography of, 175-6 Jérémie, 46, 61, 134 impact on black population, 131 John Carter Brown Library, 171 see also Haiti, independence of; Josephine, empress (wife of Napoleon Napoleon Bonaparte), 116, 128 Legislative Assembly (1791-2), 47,51 143 121-9, 130 (illus.) Jenson, Deborah (scholar), 176 defeat of, 133-4, 140 Beyond the Slave Narrative, 176 historiography of, 175-6 Jérémie, 46, 61, 134 impact on black population, 131 John Carter Brown Library, 171 see also Haiti, independence of; Josephine, empress (wife of Napoleon Napoleon Bonaparte), 116, 128 Legislative Assembly (1791-2), 47,51 --- Page 205 --- Index Lejeune affair, 17 see also Constitution of 1801; Lentz, Thierry (historian), 176 "Louverturian state"; slave Napoléon, l'esclavage et les colonies, 176 insurrection of August 1791 "Léopardins," 29 "Louverturian state," 90, 98, 139, 169 Lethière, Guillaume Guillon (artist), 150 (illus.) Macaya (military commander), 57, Louis XIV (king of France), 12 58-9 Louis XVI (king of France), 37, 47-8, 50 Madiou, Thomas (historian), 165 Louisiana, 117, 160 Maitland, Thomas (general), 93 Louisiana Purchase, 3, 133 Makandal (slave insurgent), 19 Louverture, Isaac (son of Toussaint Manigat, Sabine (scholar), 90 Louverture), 87, 120, 124 see also "Louverturian state" Louverture, Paul (brother of Toussaint maréchaussée, 23 Louverture), 122, 133 marronnage, 18-19 Louverture, Placide (son of Toussaint Martinique, 4, 12, 28, 116-18, 128 Louverture), 87, 120, 124 Master of the Crossroads (by Madison Louverture, Toussaint, 2, 6, 63-5, 100 Smartt Bell), 7 (illus.), 101-2 Matthewson, Tim (historian), 176 army of, 69-71, 86, 100-1 A Proslavery Foreign Policy, 176 arrest and deportation of, 126 Maurepas, General, 125, 131 before Haitian Revolution, 14, 23, 43,70 15 May 1791, law of, 33-4,37 and Constitution of 1801, 98-101, McClellan, James E. (historian), 173 107-8 (illus.), 109 Colonialism and Science, 173 death of, 126-7 Mills, Jean-Baptiste (Saint-Domingue and French authorities, 54, 59-60, 71, deputy), 66-7 73, 91-4, 105, 114, 121 Mirabeau, Honoré (politician), 28 governor of Saint-Domingue, 90 Mirbeck, Frédéric Ignace de (French joins French forces, 67, 69, 172 colonial official), 44 and 1791 insurrection, 43-4, 49,70 Mirebalais, 41,72 and Leclerc expedition, 121-4, 126 Moise (general), 71, 90, 94, 107, memory of, 145, 164 112-13 and Napoleon, 105, 110-13 Moïse, Claude (historian), 144, 157, occupies Santo Domingo, 107, 109, 114 personal qualities, 71-2 Constitutions et luttes de pouvoir en relations with Laveaux, 71-2, 77-8, 81 Haiti, 177 relations with Sonthonax, 69, 79, 81-2, Moïse rebellion, 112-13, 121 Moitt, Bernard (historian), 174 and religion, 73, 99-100, 102 Women and Slavery in the French and Rigaud, 90, 96-7 Antilles, 174 rise to power, 76, 80-3, 88 Môle Saint-Nicolas, 61 social policies, 90, 98-100, 103-4, 109, Monroe doctrine, 151 111, 115, 121 Moral and Intellectual Diversity of the social and political ideas, 72-3, 82-3, Races (by Gobineau), 164 see also racism takes name "Louverture," 60 Moreau de Saint-Méry, M.-L.-E. (white and Villatte affair, 78 colonist), 27,33 , 88 Môle Saint-Nicolas, 61 social policies, 90, 98-100, 103-4, 109, Monroe doctrine, 151 111, 115, 121 Moral and Intellectual Diversity of the social and political ideas, 72-3, 82-3, Races (by Gobineau), 164 see also racism takes name "Louverture," 60 Moreau de Saint-Méry, M.-L.-E. (white and Villatte affair, 78 colonist), 27,33 --- Page 206 --- Index Napoleon, 3, 5, 83, 92, 94, 104, 114-16 Pélage, Magloire Guadeloupian colonial policy of, 91-2, 105-6, 111-12, insurgent), 119 115-18, 133-5 Pétion, Alexandre (general and president restoration of slavery by, 128 of Haiti), 41, 97, 120, 130 (illus.) and Toussaint Louverture, 110-11, 116, and assassination of Dessalines, 145, 118-19 see also Leclerc expedition; Louisiana death of, 149 Purchase policies of, 147-9 Napoleon III, 157 and Republic of Haiti (1806), 146 Napoleonic wars, 143 role in defeat of Leclerc expedition, 129, National Assembly (1789-91), 3, 27-8 decrees concerning colonies, 28, 33-4 see also free people of color; Serment des National Convention (1792-5), 61, 65, 76 Ancêtres, Le abolition of slavery by, 66-7 Petit-Goave, 96 recall of Sonthonax and Polverel, 61, 65 Petit Noël (guerrilla leader), 123 see also Committee of Public Safety; 16 petits blancs, 20, 41, 45, 51 pluviose An II, decree of see also white colonists neocolonialism, 153 Philosophical History of the Two Indies (by New Orleans, 4, 120 Raynal), 24-5 Nicholls, David (historian), 177 Pierrot (insurgent leader), 57 From Dessalines to Duvalier, 177 Pinchinat, Pierre, 51, 53, 74 12 nivose An VI, law of, 83, 104 see also free people of color see also Directory Piquet, Jean-Daniel (historian), 172 nouveaux libres, 98, 103-4 Emancipation des Noirs dans la see also 29 August 1793, emancipation Révolution française, 172 decree of; 20 June 1793, crisis of Piquet movement, 157 Platons, "republic" of, 52, 54 19 October 1792, journée of (in Cap Pluchon, Pierre (historian), 175 Français), 53 Toussaint Louverture, 175 Of the Literature of the Negroes (by 16 pluviose An II, decree of, 66-7 Grégoire), 128 see also abolitionist movement, French; Ogé, Vincent (free colored insurgent Dufay, Louis; National Convention leader), 30-1 (illus.), 32 police des noirs, 25 Ogé rebellion, 30, 31 (illus.), 32, 41 Polish soldiers (in Leclerc expedition), Ott, Thomas (historian), 173 The Haitian Revolution, 173 Polverel, Étienne, 48, 53-61, 64, 74,77 arrest of, 69 Pamphile, Léon D. (historian), 176 death of, 69 Haitians and African Americans, 176 emancipation of slaves and, 57, 59-60 Paoli, Pasquale (Corsican revolutionary), and Toussaint Louverture, 69 see also Civil Commission, Second Civil Papillon, Jean-François, see Jean-François Commission; 20 June 1793, crisis of; Peabody, Sue (historian), 173 Sonthonax, Léger-Félicité "There Are No Slaves in France",173 pompons blancs, 41 peasants, see cultivateurs; Rural Code pompons rouges, 41 and, 57, 59-60 Paoli, Pasquale (Corsican revolutionary), and Toussaint Louverture, 69 see also Civil Commission, Second Civil Papillon, Jean-François, see Jean-François Commission; 20 June 1793, crisis of; Peabody, Sue (historian), 173 Sonthonax, Léger-Félicité "There Are No Slaves in France",173 pompons blancs, 41 peasants, see cultivateurs; Rural Code pompons rouges, 41 --- Page 207 --- Index Popkin, Jeremy D. (historian), 171 Régent, Frédéric (historian), 174 Facing Racial Revolution, 171 France et ses esclaves, La, 174 You Are All Free: The Haitian Revolution régiment du Cap, 40,53 and the Abolition of Slavery, 174 Réunion, island of, 117 Port-au-Prince, 2, 13, 55, 122-3, 134, 142 Revolutionary Freedoms: A History of captured by British, 69 Survival, Strength and Imagination in destruction of (1791), 46 Haiti (by. Accilien et al.), 169 earthquake of 2010 in, 167 Rewbell, Jean-François (politician), 33 and insurrections in 1791-92, 45-6, Rewbell amendment, 33 Richepance, Antoine (general), 119, renamed Port- Républicain, 64 Port-de-Paix, 66, 125, 131 Rigaud, André (general and leader of free Port-Républicain, 64, 122 people of color in Saint- Domingue), see also Port-au-Prince 32, 41, 69, 74-6, 93, 96, 104 Portugal, 159 army of, 74,79, 86, 96-7, 128 Price-Mars, Jean (author), 165 conflict with Toussaint Louverture, 90, see also So Spoke the Uncle Pritchard, James (historian), 173 and Hédouville, 93-4 In Search of Empire: The French in the and Leclerc expedition, 120, 128 Americas, 1670-1730, 173 return to Haiti in 1810-11, 147 Puerto Rico, 4, 160 and Third Civil Commission, 79-80 and Villatte affair, 78 "Quasi-War," 81, 95, 111 see also free people of color see also United States Robespierre, Maximilien (politician), 33, 67,69 racism, 32, 128, 158 Rochambeau, Donatien M.-J. Vimeur see also Baudry Deslozières, Louis de (general), 77, 79, 121, 129, Narcisse; Beauvois, chevalier de; 133-4 Gobineau, Arthur; Moral and Rogers, Dominique (historian), 174 Intellectual Diversity of the Races "Les Libres de couleur dans les capitales Raguet, Condy (author), 139 de Saint-Domingue, 174 Raimond, Julien (political activist), 28, 30, "Romaine the prophetess" (insurgent 47,77, 82, 85 leader), 51 see also Civil Commission, Third Civil Roume, Philippe (French colonial official), Commission; free people of color 44, 77, 82, 95-6, 107 Rainsford, Marcus (author), 130 (illus.), see also Civil Commission, First Civil Commission; Civil Commission, see also Historical Account of the Black Third Civil Commission Empire of Hayti Rural Code (1826), 155 Ramel, Jean-Pierre (general), 101 see also Boyer, Jean-Pierre Ravine-a-Couleuvre, battle of, 124 Raynal, abbé Guillaume, 24-5, 68 (illus.), sailors, French, in Saint-Domingue, 56-8 see also Philosophical History of the Two see also 20 June 1793, crisis of Indies Saint-Christophe, 12 , see also Historical Account of the Black Third Civil Commission Empire of Hayti Rural Code (1826), 155 Ramel, Jean-Pierre (general), 101 see also Boyer, Jean-Pierre Ravine-a-Couleuvre, battle of, 124 Raynal, abbé Guillaume, 24-5, 68 (illus.), sailors, French, in Saint-Domingue, 56-8 see also Philosophical History of the Two see also 20 June 1793, crisis of Indies Saint-Christophe, 12 --- Page 208 --- Index Saint-Domingue Simcoe, General, 80 in Directory period (1795-9), 84-8 see also Britain, occupation of economy of, 13, 25, 84-5 Saint-Domingue by environmental problems in, 85-6 slave insurrection of August 1791, 10, French acquisition of, 2, 12 34-8, 39 (illus.), 48-9 geography of, 12-13 casualties in, 42 maps of, 11 (illus.), 63 (illus.) French government response to, 47-8 movement for independence of, 115 goals of, 38, 44, 48-50 new society in, 98, 103-4, 114 organization of, 1, 36-7, 48 population of, 2,12, 141 outbreak of, 34-5, 36 (illus.), 37-8 pre-revolutionary history of, 2, 10-12 and Sonthonax and Polverel, 54, 57-9 response to French Revolution, 29 white response to, 40, 42 slavery in, 13-14 women in, 39 white colonists in, 19-20 see also Biassou, Georges; Blanchelande, see also free people of color; Haiti; Philibert; Bois Caïman ceremony; Haitian Revolution; slave insurrection Boukman; Jean-H François; Louverture, of August 1791; slavery Toussaint Saint Ildefonse, treaty of, 117 slave trade, 13, 25 Saint- Léger, Edmond de (French colonial abolition of, 4, 159, 161 official), 44 French, 13 see also Civil Commission, First Civil slavery Commission abolition of, in British colonies, 161 Saint-Marc, 29, 61 abolition of, in France, 66 see also Colonial Assembly, Assembly of in colonial Saint-Domingue, 2, 13-14 Saint-Marc expansion of, after 1804, 160 Samana Bay, 120, 121 Haitian Revolution and, 2, 98, 135 Sans-Souci (guerrilla leader), 123, 133 Napoleon and restoration of, 119 Sans-Souci, palace of, 151 in United States, 98, 164 Sansay, Leonora (author), 134, 177 see also atteliers; Saint Domingue, see also Secret History, or The Horrors of slavery in; slave insurrection of Saint-Domingue August 1791; slaves (in Santo Domingo, 12, 19, 46, 55, 75, 95, Saint-Domingue) 106-7, 111, 143-4, 151, 157 slaves (in Saint-Domingue) see also Dominican Republic; Spain bossales, 16 Scott, Julius S. (historian), 174 culture of, 18 "Common Wind: Current of Afroand French Revolution, 30 American Communication in the life expectancy of, 16 Era of the Haitian Revolution, The," resistance by, 18-19 treatment of, 13-14, 16-17, 23, 25 Secret History, or The Horrors of Saintwomen and slavery, 14, 16, 19, 23 Domingue (by Sansay), 134, 177 So Spoke the Uncle (Ainsi parla l'oncle) (by Serment des Ancêtres, Le (painting), 150 Price-Mars), 165 (illus.) Society of the Friends of the Blacks, 26, see also Lethière, Guillaume Guillon 28, 32, 47 Sheller, Mimi (historian), 177 Society of the Friends of the Blacks and Democracy after Slavery, 177 the Colonies, 104 , 23 Domingue (by Sansay), 134, 177 So Spoke the Uncle (Ainsi parla l'oncle) (by Serment des Ancêtres, Le (painting), 150 Price-Mars), 165 (illus.) Society of the Friends of the Blacks, 26, see also Lethière, Guillaume Guillon 28, 32, 47 Sheller, Mimi (historian), 177 Society of the Friends of the Blacks and Democracy after Slavery, 177 the Colonies, 104 --- Page 209 --- Index Sonthonax, Léger-Félicité (French colonial Télémaque, César (civil official), 122 official), 48, 53-62, 64 thermidorian reaction, 69 arrest of, 69 Thibaudeau, Antoine (French legislator), commission of inquiry and, 69,77 emancipation of slaves by, 57, 59-60, Tortuga Island, 131 Toussaint Louverture, see Louverture, marriage of, 79 Toussaint returns to Saint- Domingue with Third Toussaint Louverture: The French Civil Commission, 77, 79,87 Revolution and the Colonial Question returns to France, 81-3, 90, 104 (by Césaire), 166 and Rigaud, 80 "Toussaint's Clause," 95 and Toussaint Louverture, 69, 81-2, Tribunate, 128 104, 116 Trouillot, Michel-Rolph (scholar), 9, 163, see also 29 August 1793, emancipation decree of; Civil Commission, Second Silencing the Past, 173 Civil Commission; Civil Commission, Tyson, George, Jr., 175 Third Civil Commission; Polverel, Toussaint Louverture, 175 Étienne Soulouque, Faustin (ruler of Haiti), 157 UNESCO, 167 Spain United States, 7, 88, 133 occupation of Hispaniola by, 11 ban on slave imports to, 159 role in events in Saint-Domingue, 32, emigration to Haiti from, 162 46, 55, 59, 61, 64, 66, 106 and Haitian Revolution, 46-7, 95, 137 withdrawal from Saint-Domingue, 75-6 and Jean- Baptiste Aristide, 153 see also Santo Domingo; slave occupation of Haiti by (1915-34), 138, insurrection of August 1791; Vasquez, 158, 165, 186-7nl1 Josef "Quasi- War" with France, 81, 95, 111 Stein, Robert Louis (historian), 172, 173, recognition of Haiti by, 154 and Saint-Domingue, 3, 47, 97, 120 French Slave Trade in the Eighteenth Saint-Domingue refugees in, 66 Century, 173 slavery in, 160 French Sugar Business, 173 and Toussaint Louverture, 91, 95-7 Léger-Félicité Sonthonax, 172, 175 see also Jefferson, Thomas; Louisiana Stevens, Edward (American diplomat), 95, Purchase; Stevens, Edward; XYZ affair" Stone That the Builder Refused, The (by Madison Smartt Bell), 7 Vasquez, Josef (priest), 56 sugar, 12-13, 15 (illus.), 152 Vastey, Baron de (author), 148 processing of, 14-16 Venezuela, 149 Surinam, 19 Vertières, battle of, 134 "Swiss" (armed black slaves), 45, 96 Vesey, Denmark (slave insurgent), 161 Sylla (guerrilla leader), 123 Vienna, treaty of, 159 Villatte, Jean-Louis (general), 69, 73, 76, Taino Indians, 11,135 77-9 Talleyrand, Charles Maurice (French see also free people of color; Villatte diplomat), 95 affair 149 Surinam, 19 Vertières, battle of, 134 "Swiss" (armed black slaves), 45, 96 Vesey, Denmark (slave insurgent), 161 Sylla (guerrilla leader), 123 Vienna, treaty of, 159 Villatte, Jean-Louis (general), 69, 73, 76, Taino Indians, 11,135 77-9 Talleyrand, Charles Maurice (French see also free people of color; Villatte diplomat), 95 affair --- Page 210 --- Index Villatte affair, 77-9 resistance to reforms by, 25-6 Vincent, Charles (army officer), 93, 101, revolt of (1768-9), 21 106, 110-11 revolutionary movement by (1789-90), vodou, 18, 35-6, 104, 109, 155, 162 Dessalines and, 145 and Sonthonax and Polverel, 53 see also "Romaine the prophetess" see also Cap Français; Colonial Assembly; 15 May 1791, law of; Walker, David (author), 162 Moreau de Saint-Méry, M.-L.-E.; see also Appeal to the Coloured Citizens pompons blancs; pompons rouges; of the World Saint-Domingue war (between France, Britain, and Spain), Whitney, Eli, 160 54, 63 (illus.) see also cotton gin "war of the knives," 96-7, 144 women (in Saint-Domingue and Haiti) see also Dessalines, Jean-J Jacques; after emancipation, 103 Louverture, Toussaint; Rigaud, André and emancipation decrees, 59-60, White, Ashli (historian), 176 Encountering Revolution, 176 free women of color, 23, 56 white colonists (in Saint-Domingue), after Haitian independence, 139, 141 19-20 historiography concerning, 174 alliance with British, 54 in insurrection of 1791, 39 and French Revolution, 27-9 and Leclerc expedition, 123, 127, 131 grands blancs, 20-1 massacre of, by Dessalines, 137 and insurrections of 1791, 38-40, 41-2, slave women, 14, 19 Toussaint Louverture and, 99, 102 massacre of (by Dessalines), 137, 141 Wordsworth, William (poet), 164 and Napoleon, 116, 118 petits blancs, 20 "XYZ affair," 95